Microencapsulación de compuestos bioactivos en la industria alimentaria J. Adv. Educ. Sci. Humanit. (January - June 2025) 3(1): 43-54 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14816620 ISSN: XXXX-XXXX REVIEW ARTICLE Microencapsulation of bioactive compounds in the food industry  Mario A. García marioifal@gmail.com Received: 05 September 2024 / Accepted: 07 December 2024 / Published online: 31 January 2025 © The Author(s) 2025 Dania Torres 1 · Alicia Casariego 1 · Mario A. García 2 Abstract The microencapsulation of bioactive compounds is a widely used technology in the food industry to protect and enhance the functionality of bioactive ingredients such as vitamins, antioxidants, probiotics, and essential fatty ac- ids. This process involves encapsulating bioactive particles in a matrix, usually made of natural or synthetic polymers, forming microcapsules that improve the compounds’ sta- bility, controlled release, and bioavailability. Among the most commonly used techniques are spray-drying, coacer- vation, and extrusion, chosen based on the properties of the compound to be encapsulated and the desired applications. During food processing and storage, these technologies pro- tect sensitive compounds from adverse factors such as oxi- dation, moisture, light, or extreme pH. Microencapsulation allows for the controlled release of bioactive compounds at the right time and place, improving their effectiveness in the body, an essential property in functional foods and nutraceu- ticals. This review aimed to analyze the microencapsulation techniques used in the food industry to protect and improve the functionality of bioactive compounds such as vitamins, antioxidants, probiotics, and essential fatty acids. Keywords microencapsulation, bioactive compounds, probiotic microorganisms, stability, controlled release, food industry. Resumen La microencapsulación de compuestos bioac- tivos es una tecnología ampliamente utilizada en la indus- tria alimentaria para proteger y mejorar la funcionalidad de ingredientes bioactivos como vitaminas, antioxidantes, probióticos y ácidos grasos esenciales. Este proceso implica encapsular partículas bioactivas en una matriz, generalmente de polímeros naturales o sintéticos, formando microcápsulas que mejoran la estabilidad, liberación controlada y biodis- ponibilidad de los compuestos. Entre las técnicas más em- pleadas destacan el spray-drying, coacervación y extrusión, seleccionadas según las propiedades del compuesto a encap- sular y las aplicaciones deseadas. Estas tecnologías permiten proteger los compuestos sensibles frente a factores adversos como la oxidación, la humedad, la luz o el pH extremo du- rante el procesamiento y almacenamiento de alimentos. La microencapsulación facilita la liberación controlada de los compuestos bioactivos en el momento y lugar adecuado, me- jorando su efectividad en el organismo, propiedad esencial en los alimentos funcionales y nutracéuticos. El objetivo de esta revisión fue analizar las técnicas de microencapsulación utilizadas en la industria alimentaria para proteger y mejorar la funcionalidad de compuestos bioactivos, como vitaminas, antioxidantes, probióticos y ácidos grasos esenciales. Palabras clave microencapsulación, compuestos bioacti- vos, microorganismos probióticos, estabilidad, liberación controlada, industria alimentaria. How to cite Torres, D., Casariego, A., & García, M. A. (2025). Microencapsulation of bioactive compounds in the food industry. Journal of Advances in Education, Sciences and Humanities, 3(1), 43-54. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14816620 1 Instituto de Farmacia y Alimentos, Universidad de La Habana, La Habana, Cuba. 2 Universidad San Gregorio de Portoviejo, Manabí, Ecuador.

J. Adv. Educ. Sci. Humanit. (January - June 2025) 3(1): 43-54 44 Introduction Microencapsulation is a technology that involves enclosing solid, liquid, or gaseous materials in small capsules, which release their contents in a controlled manner under the influence of specific factors. The microcapsules comprise a thin semipermeable membrane surrounding a core, where the material of interest is located (Naveed et al., 2021). According to Rios-Aguirre and Gil-Garzón (2021), most microcapsules are small spheres with diameters ranging from 0.2 to 5000 µm. The structures of the microcapsules can be spherical or irregular, with the core distributed within a matrix of wall material (Choudhury et al., 2021). The release of the internal material can be triggered by factors such as temperature, pH, enzymatic action, or mechanical stress (Kamaly et al., 2016). Bioactive food components, such as vitamins, antioxidants, and probiotics, are sensitive to degradation, making microencapsulation a suitable option for protecting them. This technology benefits bioactives like lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and probiotics (Zabot et al., 2022). The microencapsulation of lipids, for example, allows their inclusion in food products, protecting them from oxidation and improving their solubility (Calderón-Oliver & Ponce- Alquicira, 2022). The benefits of microencapsulation include improved stability of the core material, protection against oxidative stress, masking of undesirable flavors, and extending the shelf life of food products. It also facilitates the handling and uniform distribution of bioactives in food mixtures (Pattnaik et al., 2021). Despite its success in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries, microencapsulation has yet to have as significant an impact in the food industry, mainly due to concerns over costs. However, it can be cost-effective when applied to active ingredients in functional foods (Piñón- Balderrama et al., 2020). This review aimed to analyze microencapsulation techniques used in the food industry to protect and enhance the functionality of bioactive compounds, such as vitamins, antioxidants, probiotics, and essential fatty acids. The review seeks to evaluate the benefits of this process in terms of stability, controlled release, and bioavailability of encapsulated compounds, as well as the specific applications of technologies such as spray drying, coacervation, and extrusion. Additionally, it aims to discuss how these strategies contribute to innovation in the design of functional foods and nutraceuticals, optimizing their quality and response to the demands of health-conscious consumers. Microencapsulation methods The microencapsulation process has been carried out using various techniques, and it is estimated that over 200 methods are documented in the patent literature (Vieira et al., 2020). The classification of these methods varies significantly, and creating a universal categorization system is becoming increasingly complex. In this review, the classification proposed by de Vos et al. (2010) has been adopted, which groups the methods into families. The selection of the appropriate method depends on factors such as budget, costs, properties of the core material and coating, the desired size of the microcapsules, the final application, and the expected release mechanisms (Choudhury et al., 2021). Emulsion Emulsion is one of the most commonly reported techniques for obtaining microcapsules in small quantities. This process is carried out in two steps: dispersion and hardening. First, an aqueous phase containing the core and the coating material is dispersed in an organic phase, such as oil, resulting in an oil-in-water emulsion. The dispersed aqueous droplets are hardened by cooling or adding a gelling or cross-linking agent. After the formation of microspheres, they are transferred to an aqueous system to be washed, and the oil is removed from their surface. This technique allows for a reduction in the size of the microspheres compared to extrusion and does not present significant challenges for scaling up. However, the residual oil in the microcapsules limits their use in the development of low-calorie foods (Ayyaril et al., 2023). Coacervation Coacervation is a variant of emulsification technology, which involves mixing a solution of the bioactive compound with a molecular matrix of opposite charge to form a complex. The size and characteristics of the microcapsules can be modified by adjusting the pH, ionic concentration, and concentration ratio between the core and the coating material. This technique is primarily based on electrostatic interactions, although hydrophobic interactions also play a role (de Vos et al., 2010). Complex coacervation occurs when two polymers with opposite charges interact, resulting in a complex whose solubility is so low that it precipitates, forming a film around the core to be coated. This process is carried out by pH changes that alter the charges of one or both polymers or by dilution processes that promote interaction between substances with opposite charges.

J. Adv. Educ. Sci. Humanit. (January - June 2025) 3(1): 43-54 45 Spray drying Spray drying is one of the most commonly used microencapsulation methods in the food industry due to its low cost and the high quality and quantity of products obtained. The process involves dispersing the core material in a polymer solution, forming an emulsion or dispersion, then homogenized and atomized into a drying chamber. In this chamber, the water evaporates, and the microcapsules are collected (Mohammed et al., 2020). However, this method’s main disadvantage lies in high temperatures during drying, which can damage bioactives, especially probiotics. Despite this, some studies suggest that drying parameters can be optimized to achieve the desired results (Arebo et al., 2023). Other researchers point out that spray drying is suitable for heat-sensitive materials due to the short exposure to high temperatures (Drozłowska et al., 2023). Spray drying only applies to dispersions in aqueous systems, so the coating material must be highly soluble in water. For this reason, carbohydrates are most often used as the outer phase. Although this method favors hydrophilic substances, it can also be applied to lipophilic substances. These substances are dissolved in a lipophilic phase that is added to the aqueous phase to form an oil-in-water emulsion before drying. The microcapsules obtained by this method are highly stable due to their low water activity, which allows for an extended shelf life. Freeze drying Fluidized bed coating is a technology that involves suspending the core to be microencapsulated, usually in a solid state, in an airflow directed from the bottom to the top inside a chamber. The coating material is atomized onto the bioactive component using another device. This method offers a wider variety of coating materials than spray drying, as lipidic, protein, polysaccharides, or emulsifying materials can be used (Zhang et al., 2020). Many microcapsules produced by other methods undergo this process to apply a second layer, which can influence the controlled release of the core, provide additional protection, improve the compatibility of the first layer with the food matrix, mask flavors, or direct the release to the specific desired site (de Vos et al., 2010). Extrusion The extrusion method consists of three main steps: first, the core material is dispersed in the coating material; then, this dispersion is divided into tiny droplets using a fine- diameter needle or a suitable device for this purpose; and finally, the resulting droplets pass through a dehydrating liquid or a solution that promotes polymer cross-linking. This procedure is effective for thermolabile materials or those sensitive to harmful solvents and can be performed under anaerobic conditions (Bamidele & Emmambux, 2020). Due to its complexity, it is generally considered a method suitable only for laboratory scales. However, significant advancements have been made in scaling it up, such as using multiple needle systems, rotating atomization discs, or interrupted flow techniques. This method is primarily applied to probiotics but is also used to microencapsulate flavors, enzymes, and proteins (Kowalska et al., 2022). Other microencapsulation technologies Several additional technologies besides those previously mentioned are rarely used due to their high cost despite their high efficiency. However, they can help solve specific problems in the field of microencapsulation. One example is liposome technology, which consists of a spherical lipid bilayer that encapsulates the bioactive compound to be protected. This liposome is formed by dispersing polar lipids, usually phospholipids, in aqueous dispersions (de Vos et al., 2010). Another unique method is microencapsulation in cyclodextrins, circular polymeric molecules composed of glucose monomers. The exterior of these molecules is hydrophilic, while their interior has hydrophobic characteristics, which can be enhanced by decreasing the number of glucose monomers in the cyclodextrin structure. This method increases the solubility of nonpolar molecules in polar matrices and prevents their inactivation or degradation (Poulson et al., 2022). Coating materials The biomaterials used in microencapsulation vary in their chemical composition and natural source. Among the protein coatings applied to probiotics, gelatin, and bovine whey proteins stand out, having been used as encapsulating agents, either combined by cross-linking with polysaccharides (Koh et al., 2022) or individually (Picot & Lacroix, 2004). There is a greater variety of encapsulating agents of polysaccharide origin, with alginate, derived from seaweed, being widely used in probiotic encapsulation; its limitation is being affected by the lactic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria (Mahmoud et al., 2020), cellulose derivatives (Lukova et al., 2023), starch (Lukova et al., 2023), and chitosan, a polysaccharide obtained from chitin found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans, insects, and in the cell walls of filamentous fungi (Meng et al., 2023).

J. Adv. Educ. Sci. Humanit. (January - June 2025) 3(1): 43-54 46 Alginate Alginate acid is a natural polyuronic acid extracted from seaweed, composed of β-D-mannuronic acid (M) and α-L- guluronic acid (G), linked by bonds between carbon atoms 1 and 4. The ratio of these residues varies depending on the source of alginate acid extraction (Abka-Khajouei et al., 2022). This polymer and its salts are block copolymers, including homopolymers MM and GG, which can combine or with individual residues. The ability of alginate acid or its salts to bind to monovalent cations (such as sodium alginate) and divalent cations (such as Ca 2+ ) favors gel formation, a process dependent on the composition and arrangement of the blocks (Malektaj et al., 2023). GG blocks have specific sites to bind to divalent cations, and their interaction with other GG blocks promotes the polymer cross-linking responsible for gelation. Thus, when sodium alginate is added to a solution with dissociated calcium salts, immediate interfacial polymerization occurs, resulting in calcium alginate precipitation and gradual gelation as the Ca 2+ cations diffuse inward (Hurtado et al., 2022). Factors affecting the preparation of microcapsules have been studied, such as alginate and CaCl 2 concentrations, hardening time, and cell concentrations in probiotic encapsulation (Lotfipour et al., 2012). The conventional encapsulation method uses sodium alginate in calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ) to encapsulate L. acidophilus and protect this organism from the acidic conditions of gastric juice. Studies have shown that cell cultures immobilized in calcium alginate offer better protection, reflected in increased bacterial survival under various conditions, compared to their unencapsulated state. Additionally, the results indicate that the viability of bacteria encapsulated in simulated gastric fluid increases as capsule size increases (Lotfipour et al., 2012). Chitosan Chitosan is a deacetylated derivative of chitin, obtained by treating chitin with a concentrated sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide solution at high temperatures (Aranaz et al., 2021). This process leads to the hydrolysis of the N-acetyl bond of chitin, a natural polymer abundant after starch and cellulose. Chitosan comprises composed units of 2-deoxy-2-acetoamido-α-D-glucose (Piekarska et al., 2023). Chitin, a fibrous polymer, provides highly chemical and mechanical resistance materials. This polysaccharide, a homopolymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine with β(1-4) bonds, is commonly found as a white to yellowish powder or flakes, non-toxic, biodegradable, and processable into various derivatives (Piekarska et al., 2023). Chitosan is widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries due to its film-forming properties, good biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low cost (Jiménez- Gómez & Cecilia, 2020). It is harmless (Jiménez-Gómez & Cecilia, 2020) and a renewable resource. Its application in probiotic encapsulation has been limited due to its antimicrobial properties (Yan et al., 2021). However, it has been successfully used as an additional layer in alginate microcapsules, providing hardness and improving their sensory characteristics. Lactobacilli have been encapsulated with chitosan using the emulsion method, successfully encapsulating starter microorganisms that could be recovered and reused with satisfactory results (Călinoiu et al., 2019). Probiotics Probiotics have been defined in various ways, depending on how their mechanisms of action and health benefits are interpreted. The beneficial effects of probiotics are mainly grouped into two categories: antagonistic effects, which inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms, and immunological effects, which strengthen the body’s natural defense mechanisms (Latif et al., 2023). The antipathogenic mechanism of probiotics includes the reduction of intestinal luminal pH through the production of short-chain fatty acids such as acetic, lactic, or propionic acid; restriction of essential nutrients for pathogens; alteration of the redox potential and the production of hydrogen peroxide, bacteriocins, and other inhibitory substances (Plaza-Díaz et al., 2019). Probiotics can induce cell-mediated immune responses, such as activation of the reticuloendothelial system and cytokine release, as well as the pro-inflammatory response through the regulation of tumor necrosis factors and interleukins, in addition to directly activating macrophages (Mazziotta et al., 2023). In recent years, probiotic-enriched foods have been proposed to treat various intestinal disorders in humans, such as lactose intolerance, Crohn’s disease, acute gastroenteritis, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and colon cancer (Kiousi et al., 2019). Among the most notable probiotic microorganisms are the lactic acid bacteria of the genus Lactobacillus and the bifidobacteria of the genus Bifidobacterium. Microencapsulation of probiotics In order for probiotic foods to achieve the desired therapeutic effects, they must remain metabolically stable in the product and pass through the upper gastrointestinal

J. Adv. Educ. Sci. Humanit. (January - June 2025) 3(1): 43-54 47 tract without losing viability or undergoing physiological changes (Mendonça et al., 2023) so that they reach the intestine in sufficient quantities to ensure their survival and multiplication. There are challenges related to the low viability of probiotic bacteria in fermented products. Various factors have been identified that affect probiotic viability, from the production stage to passage through the gastrointestinal tract. During fermentation, factors such as the composition of the growth medium, toxicity generated by the accumulation of metabolites (organic acids, hydrogen peroxide), dissolved oxygen concentration, and high biomass can affect viability. Before being incorporated into foods, probiotics may undergo mechanical, osmotic, or oxygen stress, and if subjected to spray drying or freezing treatments, they may be exposed to extreme temperatures and pronounced cellular dehydration (Mendonça et al., 2023). During storage, microorganism viability can be affected by storage temperature, incompatibilities with starter cultures, and intrinsic characteristics of the food matrix, such as pH, moisture content, dissolved oxygen, and concentrations of proteins and sugars. Viability is also affected by the adverse conditions of the upper gastrointestinal tract, extreme pH, enzymatic activity, and bile salts. Proper design of the food matrix can mitigate these effects (Ulrika, 2022). Commercial probiotic strains are typically selected for their technological properties rather than their probiotic potential, as some intestinal strains face difficulties in producing large quantities of biomass. There is a growing demand for new technologies that optimize scaling, ensure microorganism stability in food, allow the incorporation of new strains, and expand food matrix options while ensuring economic profitability (Terpou et al., 2019). Strategies to increase probiotic resistance to adverse conditions include sublethal stress during fermentation to induce cross-resistance, the use of oxygen-impermeable packaging, the addition of micronutrients, osmoprotectors such as betaine, and microencapsulation (Agriopoulou et al., 2023). Microencapsulation, which occurs naturally through the excretion of exopolysaccharides during bacterial growth, effectively protects microorganisms against osmotic changes and adverse environmental factors. However, many lactic acid bacteria do not produce exopolysaccharides in sufficient quantities for complete encapsulation (Jurášková et al., 2022). Microencapsulation in biodegradable polymer matrices offers numerous advantages (Table 1). It simplifies the quan- tification and handling of microorganisms, allows the incor- poration of growth factors, prebiotics, osmoprotectants, and thermoprotectors into the capsule, and the microcapsules can be coated with other polymers to provide desired physical or sensory properties. Additionally, the microcapsules can be designed to release their contents in different areas of the body, protecting probiotics during storage and passage through the gastrointestinal tract to release them in the small intestine, maintaining their viability and probiotic properties (Lakshmi et al., 2023). Figure 1 shows the percentages of occurrence of different encapsulation materials in the formulation of the microcap- sules; the most commonly used material is alginate, and its concentration in the microcapsule is directly related to the survival of the probiotics, especially when exposed to high temperatures. The most used proteins are serum proteins and casein, derived from milk, and gelatin obtained from the par- tial hydrolysis of animal collagen tissue. Prebiotics (FOS, inulin, IMO, agave nectar) are incorporated into the formu- Figure 1. Most commonly used microencapsulating materials.

Table 1. Encapsulated probiotics studied in foods Microencapsulation materials Method Encapsulated microorganism Microcapsule dimensions Food matrix Reference Carrageenan B. longum B6 and B. longum ATCC 15708 Yogurt Adhikari et al. (2000) Alginate Lactobacillus acidophilus MJLA1 and Bifidobacterium sp. BDBB2 1.77 mm, 0.064 with Tween and SDS Frozen fermented dairy desserts Shah & Ravula (2000) Alginate, starch, glycerol Emulsion Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium spp. 0.5 – 1 mm Yogurt Sultana et al. (2000) Gellan gum and xanthan gum Extrusion Bifidobacterium infantis ATCC 15697 3 mm Yogurt Sun & Griffiths (2000) L. acidophilus CSCC2401, B. infantis CSCC1912, L. acidophilus 910, and B. lactis 920 Cheddar cheese Godward & Kailasapathy (2003) Dairy fat and/or serum proteins Emulsion and/or spray drying B. breve R070 and B. longum R023 3 – 75 µm Yogurt Picot & Lacroix (2004) Alginate coated with chitosan Extrusion and coating L. acidophilus 547, B. bifidum ATCC 1994, and L. casei 01 1.89 mm Stirred yogurt Krasaekoopt et al. (2004) Chitosan, poli-L-lysine, alginate, starch, and/or FOS Extrusion and coating L. acidophilus CSCC2400 and L. acidophilus CSCC2409 ~1 mm Yogurt Iyer & Kailasapathy (2005) Alginate and starch L. acidophilus DD 910 and B. lactis DD 920 Feta cheese Kailasapathy & Masondole (2005) Gellan gum and xanthan gum Extrusion B. lactis DSM 10140 20 – 2200 µm Yogurt McMaster et al. (2005) Alginate, starch, FOS, and inulin Emulsion L. acidophilus, L. casei, L. rhamnosus, and Bifidobacterium spp. Yogurt Capela et al. (2006) Alginate and starch Emulsion L. acidophilus and B. lactis Yogurt Kailasapathy (2006) Alginate Extrusion or emulsion L. reuteri 40 µm (emulsion), 2 – 3 mm (extrusion) Sausages Muthukumarasamy & Holley (2006) Carrageenan B. longum Stirred yogurt Adhikari et al. (2006)

Microencapsulation materials Method Encapsulated microorganism Microcapsule dimensions Food matrix Reference Alginate Extrusion L. reuteri and B. longum 2 – 3 mm Sausages Muthukumarasamy & Holley (2007) Serum proteins Extrusion followed by freeze-drying L. rhamnosus R011 2.8 mm Biscuits, frozen cranberry juice, and vegetable juice Ainsley et al. (2007) Alginate and starch Emulsion L. casei and B. lactis Ice cream Homayouni et al. (2008) Alginate Emulsion B. bifidum BB-12 and L. acidophilus LA-5 340 µm Iranian yogurt Mortazavian et al. (2008) Alginate or carrageenan, corn oil Extrusion or emulsion B. bifidum BB-12 and L. acidophilus LA-5 0.5 – 1.0 mm Kasar cheese Özer et al. (2008) Alginate or carrageenan Extrusion or emulsion B. bifidum BB-12 and L. acidophilus LA-5 0.3 – 0.4 mm White cheese Özer et al. (2009) Alginate, lecithin, and starch Extrusion followed by freeze-drying Lactobacillus spp., Bifidobacterium spp., and Lactococcus lactis Yogurt Donthidi et al. (2010) L. helveticus CNCM I-1722 and B. longum CNCM I-3470 Chocolate, milk Possemiers et al. (2010) Alginate and pectin Extrusion L. casei ~1 mm Yogurt Sandoval-Castilla et al. (2010) Serum proteins and palm oil Spray drying L. rhamnosus GG Infant formula powder Weinbreck et al. (2010)

J. Adv. Educ. Sci. Humanit. (January - June 2025) 3(1): 43-54 50 lations to protect the microorganisms during microencapsu- lation, storage, and gastrointestinal transit, and the results obtained have been satisfactory. Figure 2 shows different techniques for producing micro- capsules at the laboratory scale. There is a marked tendency toward extrusion, emulsification, and spray drying. These techniques are directly related to the size of the microcap- sules, which in turn has consequences on the levels of protec- tion, which often increase with the diameter of the microcap- sules, and the changes in the textural properties of foods with incorporated microcapsules, which on the contrary, decrease as the size decreases. Another factor influencing the choice Figure 2. Methods used in the production of microcapsules. of one technique over another is the thermal resistance of the species, as well as the available microencapsulating material and the possibility of scaling up the product. Conclusions Microencapsulation is an alternative to increase the viability of probiotics under simulated gastrointestinal conditions and during the storage of the microcapsules or the food matrix itself. The materials for microencapsulation must be selected according to the characteristics of the food in which they will be used and the applied method. The most commonly used microencapsulation method is extrusion, which produces microcapsules of acceptable size, but there are difficulties in scaling up the process. The most significant limitation of using probiotics in the food industry lies in the variation of the food’s textural properties. The most studied probiotic bacterial genera are Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. However, studies have also been reported on species from the genera Lactococcus and Pediococcus, as well as the yeast Saccharomyces boulardii. References Abka-Khajouei, R., Tounsi, L., Shahabi, N., Patel, A. K., Ab- delkafi, S., & Michaud, P. (2022). Structures, Properties and Applications of Alginates. Marine Drugs, 20(6), 364. https://doi.org/10.3390/md20060364 Adhikari, K., Mustapha, A., & Grün, I. U. (2003). Sur- vival and Metabolic Activity of Microencapsulated Bifidobacterium longum in Stirred Yogurt. Jour- nal of Food Science, 68(1), 75-280. https://doi.or- g/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb14152.x Adhikari, K., Mustapha, A., Grün, I. U., & Fernando, L. (2000). Viability of Microencapsulated Bifidobacteria in Set Yogurt During Refrigerated Storage. Journal of Dairy Science, 83, 1946–1951. https://doi.org/10.3168/ jds.S0022-0302(00)75070-3 Agriopoulou, S., Tarapoulouzi, M., Varzakas, T., & Jafari, S. M. (2023). Application of Encapsulation Strategies for Probiotics: From Individual Loading to Co-Encap- sulation. Microorganisms, 11(12), 2896. https://doi. org/10.3390/microorganisms11122896 Aranaz, I., Alcántara, A. R., Civera, M. C., Arias, C., Elor- za, B., Heras, A., & Acosta, N. (2021). Chitosan: An Overview of Its Properties and Applications. Poly- mers (Basel), 13(19), 3256. https://doi.org/10.3390/ polym13193256 Arebo, M. A., Feyisa, J. D., Tafa, K. D., & Satheesh, N. (2023). Optimization of spray-drying parameter for

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J. Adv. Educ. Sci. Humanit. (January - June 2025) 3(1): 43-54 54 Bioactive Compounds for Food and Agricultural Appli- cations. Polymers (Basel), 14(19), 4194. https://doi. org/10.3390/polym14194194 Zhang, R., Hoffmann, T., & Tsotsas, E. (2020). Novel Tech- nique for Coating of Fine Particles Using Fluidized Bed and Aerosol Atomizer. Processes, 8(12), 1525. https:// doi.org/10.3390/pr8121525 Conflicts of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Author contributions Conceptualization: Dania Torres, Mario A. García. Re- search: Dania Torres, Alicia Casariego, Mario A. García. Methodology: Dania Torres, Alicia Casariego. Supervi- sion: Alicia Casariego. Validation: Alicia Casariego. Visua- lization: Dania Torres. Writing the original draft: Dania Torres, Alicia Casariego, Mario A. García. Writing, review and editing: Dania Torres, Alicia Casariego, Mario A. Gar- cía. Data availability statement Not applicable. Statement on the use of AI The authors acknowledge the use of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies to improve the readability and cla- rity of the article. Disclaimer/Editor’s note The statements, opinions, and data contained in all publi- cations are solely those of the individual authors and contri- butors and not of Journal of Advances in Education, Scien- ces and Humanities. Journal of Advances in Education, Sciences and Humani- ties and/or the editors disclaim any responsibility for any in- jury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions, or products mentioned in the content.