Quitosana como emulsionante natural en la mayonesa:
estabilidad y efectos sobre la calidad del producto
J. Food Sci. Gastron
. (January - June 2024)
2
(1): 1-5
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13996171
ISSN: 3073-1283
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Chitosan as a natural emulsifier in mayonnaise:
stability and effects on product quality
Alicia Casariego
alicia@ifal.uh.cu
1 Instituto de Farmacia y Alimentos, Universidad de La Habana,
Cuba.
2 Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Guayaquil.
Ecuador.
Received: 16 June 2023 / Accepted: 19 September 2023 / Published online: 26 January 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
Alicia Casariego
1
·
Raúl Díaz
1
Abstract
In this study, the foaming and emulsifying prop-
erties of chitosan and its application in the formulation of
food products such as cakes, pancakes, and mayonnaise were
evaluated. The results indicated that chitosan exhibits a no-
table foaming capacity, although it decreased with the ad-
dition of salt, which in turn improved foam stability. It was
observed that chitosan formed stable emulsions, favored by
its molecular structure, although salt reduced the stability of
these emulsions. In mayonnaise, chitosan was able to partial-
ly replace eggs while maintaining the stability of the emul-
sions, although concentrations higher than 0.1% resulted in
an undesirable aftertaste. Long-term studies were suggested
to evaluate the formulation´s stability during storage. These
fndings highlight the potential of chitosan as an emulsifying
and foaming agent in various food applications.
Keywords
chitosan, foaming properties, emulsions, foam
stability, mayonnaise, salt.
Resumen
En este estudio se evaluaron las propiedades
espumantes y emulsionantes de la quitosana y su aplicación
en la formulación de productos alimenticios como tortas,
panqués y mayonesas. Los resultados indicaron que la qui-
tosana presenta una notable capacidad espumante, aunque
esta disminuyó con la adición de sal, que a su vez mejoró la
estabilidad de las espumas. Se observó que la quitosana for-
mó emulsiones estables, favorecidas por su estructura mo-
lecular, aunque la presencia de sal redujo la estabilidad de
estas emulsiones. En las mayonesas, la quitosana logró sus-
tituir parcialmente el huevo, manteniendo la estabilidad de
las emulsiones, aunque concentraciones superiores al 0.1%
generaron un regusto no deseado. Se sugirió realizar estudios
a largo plazo para evaluar la estabilidad de las formulacio-
nes durante el almacenamiento. Estos hallazgos resaltan el
potencial de la quitosana como emulsionante y agente espu-
mante en diversas aplicaciones alimentarias.
Palabras clave
quitosana, propiedades espumantes, emul-
siones, estabilidad de espumas, mayonesa, sal.
How to cite
Casariego, A., & Díaz, R. (2024). Chitosan as a natural emulsifer in mayonnaise: stability and efects on product quality.
Journal of Food Science and
Gastronomy
,
2
(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13996171
J. Food Sci. Gastron
. (January - June 2024)
2
(1): 1-5
2
Introduction
Chitin is a polysaccharide composed of N-acetyl-D-glu-
cosamine molecules linked by β (1-4) bonds. It is widely
found in nature and is the second most abundant polymer
after cellulose. It is a non-toxic and biodegradable substan-
ce, present in the exoskeleton of insects, crustaceans, and
arachnids, as well as in mushrooms, yeasts, corals, zooplank-
ton, butterfies, algae, and fungi (Jiménez-Gómez & Cecilia,
2020).
Chitosan is the main derivative of chitin, obtained through
a simple chemical process of deacetylation. This term en-
compasses a family of copolymers that vary in the number
of deacetylated units and molecular weight (Aranaz et al.,
2021).
The seafood processing industry generates large volumes
of waste, which has led to the investigation of the econo-
mic exploitation of chitosan due to its properties, primarily
derived from its cationic nature, and its potential to address
environmental issues (Teixeira-Costa & Andrade, 2021).
Unlike chitin, chitosan is soluble in dilute acids, which
expands its applications to felds such as pharmaceuticals,
medicine, food, and agriculture (Baharlouei & Rahman,
2022). Its properties include increasing viscosity in solution,
forming gels, foams, and emulsions, precipitating suspended
particles, reducing acidity, and forming resistant and bio-
degradable flms, in addition to reducing microbial growth.
These characteristics make chitosan valuable in the food in-
dustry (Aranaz et al., 2021).
Research has shown that chitosan can be used in mayon-
naise to improve emulsion stability and reduce microbial
growth, achieving positive results (Li et al., 2022; Ardean et
al., 2021; García et al., 2014).
Mayonnaise is a semi-solid oil-in-water emulsion that con-
tains at least 65% vegetable oil, acidifers, egg yolk as an
emulsifer, salt, sweeteners, and seasonings. However, eggs
pose challenges due to factors like elevated costs, potential
microbiological hazards, and their high cholesterol content
(Taslikh et al., 2022).
Currently, the market ofers mayonnaise-like dressings
that partially replace eggs with other emulsifers, such as
whey protein concentrates, soymilk, and propylene glycol
alginate (Rahmati et al., 2014).
Considering the nutritional importance of chitosan, which
includes reducing the absorption of fats and cholesterol, and
its role in stimulating intestinal fora, the immune system,
and bone health, the proposed objective was to evaluate the
usage of chitosan as a natural emulsifer in mayonnaise.
Materials and methods
For this work, two types of chitosan were used: chitosan
1, with a medium degree of deacetylation, obtained from the
basic chemistry laboratory of Pharmacy and Food Institute
(Havana, Cuba), and chitosan 2, with a high degree of dea
-
cetylation, obtained from the Mario Muñoz Pharmaceutical
Laboratory. Solutions of chitosan 1 were prepared at concen-
trations of 1, 2, and 3% in 1% acetic acid, stirring in a water
bath at 45 °C for one hour. The foaming capacity was measu-
red in duplicate for 12 preparations, both in the absence and
presence of 2% NaCl.
Each preparation was stirred in a 150 ml beaker with a 4
cm diameter paddle at 2000 rpm for 10 minutes. The height
of the foam was measured using a strip of millimeter paper.
Foam stability was evaluated every 10 minutes for 80 minu
-
tes. Solutions of chitosans 1 and 2 were prepared at 1, 2, and
3% in 1% acetic acid, frst with 2% NaCl and then without
it. The emulsions were prepared in duplicate by adding 10
ml of each solution to a 50 ml centrifuge tube, using a turbi-
ne-type paddle at 2000 rpm with a drip addition of 10 ml of
oil over 5 minutes, followed by 3 more minutes of stirring.
Ten ml of each emulsion were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for
6 minutes, recording the volume of separated oil. The stabi
-
lity of the emulsion was calculated based on the volume of
non-separated oil compared to the total added.
Mayonnaises were prepared with 0.1-0.5% chitosan using
a domestic blender to observe possible organoleptic efects.
A total of 500 g of a mayonnaise-type dressing was prepared
at the Food Industry Research Institute (IIIA), following a
specifc order of ingredient addition. The samples were sto
-
red in 350 ml glass jars at room temperature until evaluation.
The sensory evaluation was conducted with a panel of jud-
ges from the IIIA, following the defect evaluation procedure
by Zamora et al. (1996). The pH was determined with a glass
electrode potentiometer, moisture was measured using a gra-
vimetric method, and consistency was assessed using the
drop test method. The stability of the mayonnaise was eva-
luated by centrifuging 10 g of each sample at 3000 rpm for
6 minutes, both without prior treatment and after 24 hours
at 40 °C.
Results and discussion
The results of the foaming capacity determination are pre-
sented in Table 1. These values indicate that chitosan exhi-
bits foaming properties (Song et al., 2022). This characte-
ristic makes chitosan suitable for the preparation of cakes
and pound cakes. It was observed that the height of the foam
decreased as the concentration of chitosan increased, while
its consistency increased.
J. Food Sci. Gastron
. (January - June 2024)
2
(1): 1-5
3
Table 1.
Average values of the height reached by the foam
PreparationWithout salt (cm)With salt (cm)
1
3.40 d3.60 bc
2
3.85 b3.80 b
33.80 b3.75 b
44.20 a
3.80 b
5
3.75 b3.85 b
63.70 bc3.45 cd
The addition of salt generally reduces the foaming capa-
city. This may be due to NaCl being a strong and soluble
salt that completely dissociates in water, allowing its charged
groups to interact with acetic acid and the charged groups of
chitosan, which decreases its solubility and, consequently,
its functional properties (Obisesan et al., 2021). Table 2 pre-
sents the results of foam stability, both with salt and without
salt.
In all cases, emulsions were formed, which coincided with
previous studies highlighting the emulsifying capacity of
chitosan (Wei et al., 2022). This polymer, having a structure
that combines polar and non-polar parts, was able to encap-
sulate fat droplets and reduce interfacial tension, favoring
the formation of stable emulsions. The viscosity of the emul-
sions increased with higher concentrations of chitosan, and
stability was greater in more concentrated solutions, thanks
to a higher amount of available emulsifer and increased vis
-
cosity. However, the presence of salt reduced the emulsion
stability, possibly by interacting with the charged groups of
chitosan and acetic acid.
Mayonnaise prepared with diferent concentrations of chi
-
tosan exhibited excellent emulsions visually. However, an
aftertaste was noted that increased with concentration, so a
concentration of 0.1% was chosen for subsequent tests, whe-
re the aftertaste was minimal.
Table 2.
Values of the height reached by the liquid with salt and without salt
MayonnaisePreparation
Minutes
1020304050607080
With salt
1
0.35
0.55
0.700.800.850.850.930.95
20.400.55
0.680.750.850.900.900.90
3
0.55
0.700.800.850.900.900.93
1.00
4
0.35
0.45
0.580.650.700.750.800.83
50.000.000.000.100.20
0.280.30
0.40
6
0.000.000.000.000.050.100.20
0.23
Without salt
10.40
0.630.750.830.850.900.900.95
20.45
0.650.680.750.800.800.900.98
30.600.750.800.850.900.95
1.001.00
4
0.600.650.700.730.750.800.850.85
50.150.20
0.300.35
0.450.45
0.48
0.55
6
0.00
0.18
0.25
0.300.33
0.40
0.48
0.50
The foam stability increased with the concentration of chi-
tosan, reaching maximum stability in the formulation con-
taining 3% of this polymer. Unlike what was observed in
foaming capacity, the presence of salt contributed to foam
stability (Risser et al., 2017). This is because salt can afect
the interaction between chitosan molecules and air bubbles,
helping to stabilize the foam structure by reducing interfacial
tension and preventing bubble coalescence.
The infuence of salt on the stability of emulsions and
foams has been documented. For example, according to Wei
et al. (2022), salt can modify the properties of proteins and
other emulsifying agents, which might result in greater sta-
bility of emulsions and foams by promoting the formation of
a more resilient structural network. The emulsion stability
for both chitosans is shown in Table 3.
The results obtained from the four determinations: pH,
moisture, consistency, and emulsion stability are shown be-
low in Table 4.
The pH of the evaluated samples remained around 4.2,
slightly above the limit established by the standard (less
than 4.1), which aims to ensure the microbiological safety
of the product. However, this slight increase in acidity may
be compensated by the antimicrobial action of chitosan. Al-
though this does not represent a technological problem, the
pH could be adjusted by increasing the amount of vinegar
in the formulation. Samples with 0.1% chitosan showed a
J. Food Sci. Gastron
. (January - June 2024)
2
(1): 1-5
4
Table 3.
Emulsion stability values for chitosan 1 and 2
ChitosanEmulsionChitosan (%)Mayonnaise stability without salt (%)Mayonnaise stability with salt (%)
1
1
3
100 c100 c
22
97 b86 c
3
1
82 a8.0 b
2
1
397 c93 c
22
93 c91 c
3
1
63 b
11 a
Table 4.
Values of the physical and chemical determinations of the mayonnaise samples
Parameter
Mayonnaise
Control12345
pH
4.164.274.264.23
4.204.22
Humidity (%)
38.00
40.05
40.30
41.2041.50
39.00
Plummet (cm)
3.5
4.54.54.5
4.7
4.0
Stability (%)
100100100100100100
slightly higher pH than the control, attributed to the amount
of added water and the polymer’s ability to reduce acidity by
positively charging in solution, thus decreasing hydronium
ions.
Moisture values varied among the samples, increasing
compared to the control due to the substitution of egg with
water. In sample 6, the moisture percentage was lower than
in the others, as removing part of the egg did not incorpora-
te the corresponding amount of water, resulting in moisture
similar to the control. This increase in water content may
contribute to greater physical-chemical and microbiological
deterioration, although the emulsifying and antimicrobial
properties of chitosan could mitigate this efect.
The consistency of the mayonnaises with chitosan was ge-
nerally lower than that of the control, except in sample 6,
which, like the control, did not have added water, resulting
in less penetration of the plumb line due to the dilution of
the emulsion.
All mayonnaise samples, whether stored at room tempe-
rature or at 40 °C for 24 hours, showed maximum stability,
indicating that it is possible to substitute part of the egg with
water and chitosan without compromising the emulsion.
Although the method used to determine stability provides
valuable information, a prolonged study during storage is
recommended to gain a more comprehensive view of the fu-
ture behavior of the emulsions.
Conclusions
The results indicated that chitosan exhibited foaming
properties, making it suitable for the preparation of cakes
and mufns. As its concentration increased, the height of
the foam decreased, but its consistency improved. The ad-
dition of salt reduced the foaming capacity but increased
foam stability, likely due to its efect on interfacial tension.
In emulsions, chitosan demonstrated a notable emulsifying
and stabilizing ability, especially at high concentrations, al-
though salt decreased its stability. In mayonnaise, chitosan
maintained the stability of the emulsions with a pH slightly
higher than the control, although concentrations above 0.1%
generated an aftertaste that should be considered. Chitosan
proved to be a viable option for reducing egg usage, but
long-term stability studies were suggested.
References
Aranaz, I., Alcántara, A.R., Civera, M.C., Arias, C., Elorza,
B., Heras, A., & Acosta, N. (2021). Chitosan: an over
-
view of its properties and applications.
Polymers (Ba-
sel)
,
13
(19),
https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193256
Ardean, C., Davidescu, C.M., Nemeş, N.S., Negrea, A., Ci
-
opec, M., Duteanu, N., Negrea, P., Duda-Seiman, D., &
Musta, V. (2021). Factors infuencing the antibacterial
activity of chitosan and chitosan modifed by function
-
alization.
International Journal of Molecular Sciences
,
22
(14), 7449.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22147449
Baharlouei, P., & Rahman, A. (2022). Chitin and chitosan:
prospective biomedical applications in drug delivery,
cancer treatment, and wound healing.
Marine Drugs
,
20
(7), 460.
https://doi.org/10.3390/md20070460
García, M.A., Silva, Y., & Casariego, A. (2014). Develop
-
ment of a mayonnaise with chitosan as natural antioxi-
dant.
Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture
,
26
(10),
835-843.
https://doi.org/10.9755/ejfa.v26i10.17867
J. Food Sci. Gastron
. (January - June 2024)
2
(1): 1-5
5
Jiménez-Gómez, C.P., & Cecilia, J.A. (2020). Chitosan:
a natural biopolymer with a wide and varied range
of applications.
Molecules
,
25
(17), 3981.
https://doi.
org/10.3390/molecules25173981
Li, S., Jiao, B., Meng, S., Fu, W., Faisal, S., Li, X., Liu, H.,
& Wang, Q. (2022). Edible mayonnaise-like Pickering
emulsion stabilized by pea protein isolate microgels:
Efect of food ingredients in commercial mayonnaise
recipe.
Food Chemistry
,
376
, 131866.
https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131866
Obisesan, O., Ramadan, A., & Mahmood, A. (2021). The
efect of salt on stability of aqueous foams.
Energies
,
14
(2), 279.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020279
Rahmati, K., Mazaheri, T.M., & Daneshvar, K. (2014). Soy
milk as an emulsifer in mayonnaise: physico-chemi
-
cal, stability and sensory evaluation.
Journal of Food
Science and Technology
,
51
(11), 3341-7.
https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13197-012-0806-9
Risser, G.E., Banik, B.L., Brown, J.L., & Catchmark, J.M.
(2017). Structural properties of starch-chitosan-gelatin
foams and the impact of gelatin on MC3T3 mouse os
-
teoblast cell viability.
Journal of Biological Engineer-
ing
,
11
, 43.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13036-017-0086-z
Taslikh, M., Mollakhalili-Meybodi, N., Alizadeh, A.M.,
Mousavi, M.M., Nayebzadeh, K., & Mortazavian, A.M.
(2022). Mayonnaise main ingredients infuence on its
structure as an emulsion.
Journal of Food Science and
Technology
,
59
(6), 2108-2116.
https://doi.org/10.1007/
s13197-021-05133-1
Teixeira-Costa, B.E., & Andrade, C.T. (2021). Chitosan as
a valuable biomolecule from seafood industry waste
in the design of green food packaging.
Biomolecules
,
11
(11), 1599.
https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11111599
Liao, W., Gharsallaoui, A., Dumas, E., & Elaïssari, A.
(2022). Understanding of the key factors infuencing
the properties of emulsions stabilized by sodium casein-
ate.
Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food
Safety
,
21
(6), 5291-5317.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-
4337.13062
Song, Y., Zhao, Q., Qu, M., Zhang, R., Tang, P., Bin, Y.,
Li, S., Zhao, W., & Wang, H. (2022). Chitosan-based
thermal insulation compressible foam enhanced with
high performance of piezoelectric generation and sens-
ing.
Carbohydrate Polymers
,
294
, 119775.
https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119775
Conficts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conficts of interest.
Author contributions
Alicia Casariego and Raúl Díaz: Conceptualization, data cu
-
ration, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, super-
vision, validation, visualization, drafting the original manu-
script and writing, review, and editing.
Data availability statement
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study
are available from the corresponding author on reasonable
request.
Statement on the use of AI
The authors acknowledge the use of generative AI and AI-as-
sisted technologies to improve the readability and clarity of
the article.
Disclaimer/Editor’s note
The statements, opinions, and data contained in all publica-
tions are solely those of the individual authors and contri-
butors and not of Journal of Food Science and Gastronomy.
Journal of Food Science and Gastronomy and/or the editors
disclaim any responsibility for any injury to people or pro-
perty resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions, or pro-
ducts mentioned in the content.