Uso de sardinas cubanas en la producción de anchoas: análisis de factores fisicoquímicos y sensoriales J. Food Sci. Gastron . (July - December 2024) 2 (2): 17-23https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13996977ISSN: 3073-1283 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Use of Cuban sardines in anchovy production: analysis of physicochemical and sensory factors Iván N. Chaple ichaple@ifal.uh.cu Instituto de Farmacia y Alimentos, Universidad de La Habana, Cuba.Received: 06 March 2024 / Accepted: 11 June 2024 / Published online: 30 July 2024© The Author(s) 2024 Iván N. Chaple · Oscar Ros Abstract The salting-ripening process has traditionally been applied to diferent pelagic species to obtain a prod -uct with typical sensory characteristics distinct from fresh fsh. In this regard, the general objective of the research was to evaluate Cuban sardines for the production of anchovy products, aiming for their potential industrial production. The study sought to verify that this species was microbio -logically safe for human health and to compare it physically and sensorially with a traditional anchovy product. It was concluded that it was advisable to use this type of sardine for producing anchovy products, as the physicochemical results were quite similar to those found in the consulted literature. Despite having a shorter ripening time (3 months), the prod - uct received high consumer acceptance. Keywords Cuban sardines, anchovy production, salt - ing-ripening process, physicochemical analysis, sensory evaluation, microbiological safety. Resumen El proceso de salado-madurado se aplicó tradi- cionalmente a diferentes especies pelágicas con el objetivo de obtener un producto con características sensoriales típi- cas, distintas a las del pescado fresco. En este sentido, se estableció como objetivo general de la investigación evaluar las sardinas cubanas para la obtención de productos anchoa- dos, con miras a su posible producción industrial. Se buscó comprobar que esta especie fuese microbiológicamente se-gura para la salud humana y compararla física y sensorial- mente con un producto anchoado tradicional. Se concluyó que era recomendable utilizar este tipo de sardina para la ob- tención de productos anchoizados, dado que los resultados físico-químicos fueron bastante similares a los de la litera- tura consultada. A pesar de tener un tiempo de maduración menor (3 meses), el producto tuvo una gran aceptación por parte de los consumidores. Palabras clave sardinas cubanas, producción de ancho - as, proceso de salado-maduración, análisis fsicoquímico, evaluación sensorial, seguridad microbiológica. How to cite Chaple, I.N., & Ros, O. (2024). Use of Cuban sardines in anchovy production: analysis of physicochemical and sensory factors. Journal of Food Science and Gastronomy , 2 (2), 17-23. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13996977
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (July - December 2024) 2 (2): 17-23 18 Introduction The term “fsh” refers to aquatic animals used as food. These can be caught in various bodies of water, such as oceans, seas, rivers, and lakes, or raised through aquaculture techniques. Depending on the type of fsh, diferent varieties of seafood are obtained (Pounds et al., 2022).In general, all varieties of fsh are rich in essential proteins and minerals. Saltwater fsh, especially those caught at sea, are particularly abundant in fatty acids, especially unsatu - rated fatty acids such as omega-3, as well as minerals like iodine, zinc, phosphorus, and selenium. These nutrients help combat the harmful efects of LDL cholesterol, directly ben - efting the circulatory system and overall health; they also strengthen the immune system against carcinomas (Eggers - dorfer et al., 2022).Among pelagic species is the sardine, a blue saltwater fsh that belongs to the Clupeidae family, within the order Clupeiformes. This group is the most abundant and widely distributed along Cuban coasts and globally, and its fshing is of signifcant economic and nutritional importance (Claro et al., (2009).Sardines inhabit relatively warm waters with normal salin - ity and form large schools of thousands of individuals. They feed on plankton and are commonly found in well-lit surface waters where microscopic forms of phytoplankton abound. During their youth, they migrate toward the coast and shore - lines, where small individuals, newly covered by scales and just beginning to acquire their characteristic coloration, fre - quently group together. Upon reaching adulthood, they move toward oceanic waters and, at certain times, invade deeper waters (Bishop et al., 2017).Salting is a method of fsh preservation used since ancient times, with evidence dating back 3,500 to 4,000 years B.C. In the presence of salt (sodium chloride), the fesh of cer - tain fatty fsh can undergo chemical and physicochemical changes, leading to the process known as ripening or “an - chovy-making” (Cabrer et al., 2008).This process requires varying amounts of time, depending on the specifc technology applied and the species in ques - tion, resulting in a product with distinct sensory characteris - tics compared to fresh or salted fsh. Salted-ripened anchovy is traditionally produced in Southern European countries like Spain, Portugal, France, and Italy, and it is one of the most signifcant products in the international market. There are references to the trade of “anchovies” dating back to the Middle Ages when salt-ripening was essential to the econo - my of many Mediterranean towns. In this context, the objec - tive of this research was to evaluate Cuban sardines (S ardi-na pilchardus ) for the production of anchovy-like products, with an eye toward their potential industrial production. Materials and methods The raw material used in the salting and ripening experi - ments for this thesis was sardine ( S. pilchardus ) caught of the coast of Havana, Cuba, in February 2015. Coarse salt and olive oil were used for its preparation.The heading and partial gutting were done manually. To facilitate handling, the fsh was coated with fne salt. Parallel forces were applied to the body and head while keeping the junction between both parts fxed. Once the partial tearing of the fesh and viscera was achieved, a slight rotational move - ment was made to separate the head from the body. This gut - ting was partial, as part of the pyloric sac remained in the fsh.After heading and gutting, the fsh was flleted. The tail, fns, and belly were cut with scissors, and scalpels were used to obtain the fllets, due to the small size of the fsh, which required careful handling. The S. pilchardus fllets were arranged in pans for ripen - ing, forming layers as thick as a fst. After placing a layer of fsh, fne salt was added, and the process was repeated. Upon completion, a wooden lid and a 24 kg concrete block were placed to press the fsh, facilitating the expulsion of water and fat, as well as the removal of air. As the fsh lost water, the pressure was reduced to half its initial value. The fsh was covered by the brine formed by the salt and the expelled water, which was renewed periodically.During the ripening process, which lasted approximately three months at 5°C, physico-chemical and enzymatic trans - formations occurred, resulting in a product with desired sen - sory characteristics. The ripening conditions varied between facilities, from climate-controlled environments to those without specifc temperature control. Microbiological analyses were conducted at the Micro- biology Laboratory of the Fisheries Research Center (CIP), accredited for microbiological techniques. Five product replicas were evaluated using standardized methods to de - termine total microorganism count, coliforms, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus coagulase-positive, and Salmonella spp., among others. The analyses were performed according to NC 585 (2015).Physico-chemical analyses were carried out at the end of the ripening process in various laboratories, where total lip - ids, proteins, ash, pH, NaCl, and water activity were evaluat - ed using standardized methods.An acceptance and rejection test was conducted to assess the degree of ripening of traditional anchovy, with the partic - ipation of 80 consumers. The samples were taken at the end of the ripening process, briefy submerged in brine to remove excess salt, and then olive oil was added to simulate their usual presentation.
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (July - December 2024) 2 (2): 17-23 19 Results and discussion Once captured and dead, fsh begin a process of deteri - oration. In the initial stage, this deterioration is caused by enzymes present in the fsh muscle, followed by enzymes produced by microorganisms that enter the fsh. However, through the application of appropriate preservation methods and good handling practices, it is possible to keep these in - dicators within reference limits (Tavares et al., 2021). Table 1 presents the results of the sanitary quality evaluation of the fresh fllets (raw material). Table 1. Sanitary quality of fresh fllets (raw material) MicroorganismReference indexResultmnc Salmonella spp.050Absence V. parahaemolyticus 050Absence V. cholerae 050AbsenceTotal microorganism count at 30 ºC (CFU/g)10 5 -10 6 524x10 2 4.7x10 2 5.5x10 2 4.0x10 2 5.0x10 2 S. coagulase positive (CFU/g)10 2 -10 3 52< 10 2 Thermotolerant coliforms (MPN/g)0.3 -2.1520.360.361.40.3< 0.3 E. coli (MPN/g)< 0.3 500.360.361.40.3< 0.3 The pathogens S. coagulase -positive, Salmonella spp., Vibrio cholerae , and Vibrio parahaemolyticus were absent. According to NC 585 (2015) microorganisms that cause foodborne diseases (FBD) must not be present in food and beverages, as their presence poses a risk to the health or life of consumers, which would lead to the food being discarded. S. coagulase -positive is a gram-positive, facultative anaer - obic bacterium widely distributed worldwide. It is estimated that one in three people is colonized, although not infected, by it. It can cause a variety of diseases ranging from rel - atively benign skin and mucosal infections to afecting the gastrointestinal system, either by the presence of S. aureus or by ingestion of the staphylococcal enterotoxin it secretes (Tavares et al., 2021). Salmonella spp. is responsible for salmonellosis, a disease that causes various gastrointestinal conditions. In these cases, the bacteria do not invade the bloodstream but focus on the digestive system, causing enterocolitis with severe diarrhea and infammation in the colon and small intestine, which can result in moderate fever and abdominal pain (Popa & Papa, 2021).The presence of these pathogens in fsh products is asso - ciated with fecal contamination, which can result from con - tamination of the natural aquatic environment, where these microorganisms can survive for months at room tempera - ture, or from improper handling during processing (Sheng & Wang, 2021). Toxigenic V. cholerae can survive in aquatic environ - ments for months or even years, and it is associated with zooplankton and other aquatic organisms. Under stress con - ditions, it assumes a viable but non-culturable form, mak - ing it undetectable by conventional bacteriological methods (Salive et al., 2020). Transmission occurs through ingestion of the microorganism from the feces of infected individuals. Transmission mechanisms can be direct (person-to-person) or through cross-contamination via contaminated food, op - erators’ dirty hands, use of contaminated water, or infected fsh products (Stein & Chirilã, 2017). In the last 30 years,
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (July - December 2024) 2 (2): 17-23 20 foodborne cholera outbreaks have been reported, with ma - rine products such as bivalve mollusks, crustaceans, and fsh being the most implicated. Cholera cases increased in 2008 compared to 2007, reaching a total of 190,130 cases and 5,143 deaths, representing a 7.6% increase in cases and a 27% increase in deaths (Maponga et al., 2015). V. parahaemolyticus tolerates common salt and thrives in seawater, being able to grow at a pH of 9 in slightly alkaline media. It is associated with the consumption of shellfsh, and in places like Japan, special precautions are required as it can cause gastroenteritis (Ngasotter et al., 2022). Both V. para-haemolyticus and V. cholerae are halophilic bacteria; there - fore, the result obtained was signifcant for the future use of sardine fllets in anchovy production, as the brining matura - tion process ofers optimal conditions for their growth. Mesophilic aerobic bacteria were within the reference range for raw products according to the current standard. Although these bacteria are generally considered indicators, they represent a less precise and reliable measure of food poisoning risk compared to other indicators (Hoel et al., 2019). The presence of mesophilic aerobic microorganisms in food can be directly related to the handling, freshness, or spoilage of the product, and its storage temperature. A rel - atively low number of these bacteria does not necessarily imply good bacteriological quality, as the food may contain microorganisms that produce enterotoxins or pathogens (De - gaga et al., 2022). All known food-associated pathogenic bacteria are mesophilic aerobes, highlighting their impor - tance in food hygiene (Lorenzo et al., 2018). Thermotolerant coliforms and E. coli were found outside acceptable limits, indicating a high degree of fecal con - tamination. This contamination could be related to water, as well as improper handling from capture, transfer to land by fshermen, and storage. Despite implementing all neces -sary hygienic-sanitary measures since the acquisition of the sardines, an increase in their contaminant load could not be avoided. E. coli is an efective indicator of fecal contamination and the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in food and wa- ter. It is one of the main pathogenic bacteria in fsh prod - ucts, resulting from contamination from animal or human reservoirs (Yohans et al., 2022). This bacterium invades the intestinal mucosa, causing abundant and constant watery di - arrhea, known as “traveler’s diarrhea.”The presence of gram-negative enteropathogenic micro - organisms in fsh products is undesirable, and most micro - biological specifcations require their absence (Lorenzo et al., 2018). However, the anchovy processing technology al - lowed for addressing the existing microbial load in the raw material (Table 2), as no coliforms were detected in the indi - cators for anchovy. Table 2. Sanitary quality of anchovy (fnal product) MicroorganismReference indexResultmnc Salmonella spp 050AusenciaTotal microorganism count at 30 ºC (CFU/g)< 1.1x10 5 521.7x10 4 1.5x10 4 1.0x10 3 1.5x10 3 1.6x10 4 S. coagulase positive (CFU/g)< 10 2 50< 10 2 Coliforms (CFU/g)< 10 2 50< 10 The count of aerobic mesophiles increased compared to the results presented in Table 2, although it remained within the reference limit for anchovy (Dambrosio et al., 2023). This increase is related to the growth of moderate and extreme halophilic fora, which is a natural contaminant of salt (Dut - ta & Bandopadhyay, 2022). These bacteria are transferred to the salted fsh, where they fnd a nutrient-rich substrate that allows them to develop, as they can adapt to environ - ments with a high salt concentration. This phenomenon is favored as the maturation process progresses, increasing the availability of nutrients due to the proteolysis involved in the process. It is important to note that extreme halophiles grow more slowly than Eubacteria (Moran-Reyna et al., 2014), suggesting that they did not signifcantly contribute to the total number of microorganisms recorded at the beginning. The absence of Salmonella spp. and S. coagulase -positive confrms that the product is free of pathogens, thus ensuring its quality and safety. Table 3 shows the chemical composi - tion of anchovy reported in several studies.
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (July - December 2024) 2 (2): 17-23 21 This decrease is related to their role as an energy reserve necessary for cellular development during spawning. Ac - cording to Aizpún et al. (1979) and Jensen et al. (2007), the diferences in composition recorded for the same month in diferent years are linked to less favorable environmental and feeding conditions, resulting in lower lipid content.Moisture and pH values are within normal ranges for sim - ilar fsh, although they present slight variations, possibly due to factors such as species, water salinity, temperature, and climate. The ash value is comparable to that reported by oth - er researchers, indicating an adequate mineral level; howev - er, Czerner (2011) reported signifcantly higher values. The methodology used in this study is reliable and conforms to established standards.The product showed high water activity (0.95±0.03) (Manefa et al., 2017). The NaCl percentage was 15.18±0.51, near the lower limit (14-21%). This product is classifed as a preserve since it does not undergo thermal treatment; its preservation depends on reducing water activity and a high salt concentration, which limits microbial development and guarantees commercial stability. To achieve optimal con - ditions in the anchovy curing process, salt must be added, which would also provide a bacteriostatic efect and reduce the number of present microorganisms (Margiati et al., 2024).The production of anchovies remains an artisanal and me - ticulous process, where the quality of the fnal product de - pends on the skill and cleanliness of the handlers. High-qual - ity anchovies are characterized by having a fexible yet frm texture, avoiding a leathery consistency; a color that ranges from reddish-brown to a light caramelized tone; and a proper balance of aromas and favors that should harmonize the oil, salt, and fsh.Sensory evaluations should be performed by trained judg - es; however, in this study, a preference or rejection test was chosen, conducted with regular anchovy consumers without the need for training (NC 1032-1, 2014). Table 4 presents the values obtained in the sensory evaluation. Table 3. Chemical composition of anchovies ParameterAnchovy (Aizpún et al., 1979)Anchovy (Chiodi, 1962)Anchovy (Czerner, 2011)Common sardine Moisture (%)71.0374.3557.748.83 (0.15)Protein (%)18.3519.9919.6122.05 (1.23)Lipids (%)9.832.774.62.7 (0.26) pH-- 5.76.4 (0.04) a w -- 0.7810.95 (0.003)NaCl (%) -- 17.7815.18 (0.51)Ash (%)2.22.9720.183.11 (0.05) Table 4. Anchovy acceptance or rejection and preference test ConsumerAcceptance or rejectionPreferenceAcceptanceRejectionAnchovy 1Anchovy 2 8062181268The results of the sensory evaluation revealed that out of 80 consumer judges, 62 accepted the product, which trans - lates to a 77.5% acceptance rate. This percentage suggests a favorable response to the product, indicating that most consumers consider it to meet their expectations of quality, taste, and texture. An acceptance level above 75% is gener - ally seen as positive in the market (Ruiz-Capillas & Herrero, 2021), and in this case, it is attributed to the quality of the production process and attention to critical sensory aspects. However, the 22.5% of judges who rejected the product of - fer opportunities to identify areas for improvement, such as texture, favor, or salinity, which is crucial for optimizing production.In comparison, Anchovy 1 had a 15% acceptance rate, while Anchovy 2 reached 85%. This high acceptance level for Anchovy 2 suggests it was received more favorably, like - ly due to diferences in texture, favor, or freshness, refecting a more optimal production process. An 85% acceptance not only indicates good quality but also great potential for com- mercialization. In contrast, the low acceptance of Anchovy 1 highlights the need to investigate the causes of this negative perception, such as excessive salt or inadequate texture, to improve the product.
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (July - December 2024) 2 (2): 17-23 22 Conclusions The presence of sanitary quality indicators such as ther-motolerant coliforms and E. coli was identifed in the sardine fllets; however, pathogens such as Salmonella spp., V. chol-erae , V. parahaemolyticus , and S. coagulase positive were not detected in the raw material used. The salting-maturation process of sardine fllets ( S. pilchardus ) proved efective in eliminating coliforms at the end of the process. After pro - cessing, the chemical composition of the fllets was similar to that reported in previous studies, although the water ac - tivity and NaCl percentage of the fnal product did not reach optimal levels for anchovy production. Despite this, sar - dine fllets ( S. pilchardus ) with three months of maturation showed good consumer acceptance, suggesting the product’s potential in the market. References Aizpún, J., Moreno, V., & Malaspina, A. (1979). Variaciones en la composición bioquímica proximal de la anchoíta durante tres temporadas de pesca (1975-1977). Revista de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero , 1 (1), 45-53.Bera, I., O’Sullivan, M., & Flynn, D. (2023). Shields DC. Relationship between Protein Digestibility and the Pro - teolysis of Legume Proteins during Seed Germination. Molecules , 28 (7), 3204. https://doi.org/10.3390/mole - cules28073204Bishop, M.J., Mayer-Pinto, M., Airoldi, L., Firth, L.B., Mor - ris, R.L., Loke, L.H.L., Hawkins, S., Naylor, L.A., Cole - man, R.A., Chee, S.Y., & Daforn, K.A. (2017). Efects of ocean sprawl on ecological connectivity: impacts and solutions. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology , 492 , 7-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jem - be.2017.01.021Cabrer, A.I., Casales, M.R., & Yeannes, M.I. (2008). Phys - ical and Chemical Changes in Anchovy ( Engraulis anchoita ) Flesh During Marination. Journal of Aquat-ic Food Product Technology , 11 (1), 19-30. https://doi.org/10.1300/J030v11n01_03Claro, R., Sadovy, Y., Lindeman, K.C., & García-Cagid, A.R. (2009). Historical analysis of Cuban commercial fshing efort and the efects of management interven - tions on important reef fshes from 1960-2005. Fish-eries Research , 99 (1), 7-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshres.2009.04.004Czerner, M. (2011). Aspectos tecnológicos de la maduración de anchoíta ( Engraulis anchoita ) salada. Efecto de la composición química y otras variables tecnológicas. Universidad de La Plata. Dambrosio, A., Quaglia, N.C., Colonna, M.A., Capuozzo, F., Giannico, F., Tarricone, S., Caputi, A., & Ragni, M. (2023). Shelf-life and quality of anchovies ( Engraulis encrasicolus ) refrigerated using diferent packaging materials. Fishes , 8 (5), 268. https://doi.org/10.3390/fshes8050268Dutta, B., & Bandopadhyay, R. (2022). Biotechnological po -tentials of halophilic microorganisms and their impact on mankind. Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences , 11 (1), 75. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43088-022-00252-wEggersdorfer, M., Berger, M.M., Calder, P.C., Gombart, A.F., Ho, E., Laviano, A., & Meydani, S.N. (2022). Perspective: role of micronutrients and omega-3 long- chain polyunsaturated fatty acids for immune outcomes of relevance to infections in older adults-a narrative re - view and call for action. Advances in Nutrition , 13 (5), 1415-1430. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmac058Jensen, K.N., Jacobsen, C., & Nielsen, H.H. (2007). Fatty acid composition of herring ( Clupea harengus L.): in - fuence of time and place of catch on n-3 PUFA content. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture , 87 (4), 710-718.Lorenzo, J.M., Munekata, P.E., Dominguez, R., Pateiro, M., Saraiva, J.A., & Franco, D. (2018). Main groups of mi - croorganisms of relevance for food safety and stabili - ty: general aspects and overall description. Innovative Technologies for Food Preservation , 53-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811031-7.00003-0Manefa, A.J., Stenner, R., Matharu, A.S., Clark, J.H., Matu - bayasi, N., & Shimizu, S. (2017). Water activity in liq - uid food systems: a molecular scale interpretation. Food Chemistry , 237 , 1133-1138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.06.046Maponga, B.A., Chirundu, D., Gombe, N.T., Tshimanga, M., Bangure, D., & Takundwa, L. (2015). Cholera: a com - parison of the 2008-9 and 2010 outbreaks in Kadoma City, Zimbabwe. Pan African Medical Journal , 20 , 221. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2015.20.221.5197Margiati, R., Marvie, I., & Nasution, S. (2024). Efect of salt concentration and fermentation time in the develop - ment of anchovy ( Stolephorus sp.) Bekasam as tempura raw material. AGRITEPA: Jurnal Ilmu Dan Teknologi Pertanian , 11 (1), 15-28. https://doi.org/10.37676/ag - ritepa.v11i1.4829Moran-Reyna, A., & Coker, J.A. (2014). The efects of ex - tremes of pH on the growth and transcriptomic profles of three haloarchaea. F1000Research , 3 , 168. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.4789.2
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (July - December 2024) 2 (2): 17-23 23 NC 1032-1. (2014). Análisis sensorial. Principios generales para la formación de catadores y funcionamiento de las CES. Parte 1. Formación. Cuba.NC 585. (2015). Criterios microbiológicos por grupo de al - imentos. Cuba.Ngasotter, S., Mukherjee, S., Singh, S.K., Bharti, D., Haque, R., Varshney, S., Nanda, C., Waikhom, D., Devi, M.S., & Singh, A.S. (2022). Prevalence, virulence, and an -tibiotic resistance of Vibrio parahaemolyticus from seafood and its environment: an updated review. Medi-terranean Journal of Infection, Microbes & Antimicro-bials , 11 (1), 1-1. https://doi.org/10.4274/mjima.gale - nos.2021.2021.1Popa, G.L., & Papa, M.I. (2021). Salmonella spp. infection - a continuous threat worldwide. Germs , 11 (1), 88-96. https://doi.org/10.18683/germs.2021.1244Pounds, A., Kaminski, A.M., Budhathoki, M., Gudbrandsen, O., Kok, B., Horn, S., Malcorps, W., Abdullah-Al, M., McGoohan, A., Newton, R., Ozretich, R., & Little, D.C. (2022). More than fsh-framing aquatic animals within sustainable food systems. Foods , 11 (10), 1413. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11101413Ruiz-Capillas, C., & Herrero, A.M. (2021). Sensory anal - ysis and consumer research in new product devel - opment. Foods , 10 (3), 582. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10030582Salive, A.F.V., Prudêncio, C.V., Baglinière, F., Oliveira, L.L., Ferreira, S.O., & Vanetti, M.C.D. (2020). Comparison of stress conditions to induce viable but non-cultivable state in Salmonella. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology , 51 (3), 1269-1277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-020-00261-wSheng, L., & Wang, L. (2021). The microbial safety of fsh and fsh products: Recent advances in understanding its signifcance, contamination sources, and control strate - gies. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety , 20 (1), 738-786. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12671Stein, R.A., & Chirilã, M. (2017). Routes of transmission in the food chain. Foodborne Diseases , 65-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385007-2.00003-6Tavares, J., Martins, A., Fidalgo, L.G., Lima, V., Amaral, R.A., Pinto, C.A., Silva, A.M., & Saraiva, J.A. (2021). Fresh fsh degradation and advances in preservation us - ing physical emerging technologies. Foods , 10 (4), 780. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10040780 Yohans, H., Mitiku, B.A., & Tassew, H. (2022). Levels of Escherichia coli as bio-indicator of contamination of fsh food and antibiotic resistance pattern along the value chain in Northwest Ethiopia. Veterinary Medi-cine: Research and Reports , 13 , 299-311. https://doi.org/10.2147/VMRR.S373738 Conficts of interest Te authors declare that they have no conficts of interest. Author contributions Iván N. Chaple and Oscar Ros: Conceptualization, data cu - ration, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, super - vision, validation, visualization, drafting the original manu - script and writing, review, and editing. Data availability statement The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Statement on the use of AI The authors acknowledge the use of generative AI and AI-as - sisted technologies to improve the readability and clarity of the article. Disclaimer/Editor’s note The statements, opinions, and data contained in all publica - tions are solely those of the individual authors and contrib - utors and not of Journal of Food Science and Gastronomy.Journal of Food Science and Gastronomy and/or the editors disclaim any responsibility for any injury to people or prop - erty resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions, or prod - ucts mentioned in the content.