Calidad sanitaria y nutricional del Tonou y el Tchotou, mostazas tradicionales producidas en el norte de Togo, África Occidental J. Food Sci. Gastron. (July - December 2026) 4(2): 14-23 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21864368 ISSN 3073-1283 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Sanitary and nutritional quality of Tonou and Tchotou, traditional mustards produced in northern Togo, West Africa  Essodolom Taale taale.essodolom@univkara.tg Laboratory of Applied Agronomic and Biological Sciences, University of Kara, Kara, Togo. Received: 31 May 2026 / Accepted: 24 July 2026 / Published online: 31 July 2026 © The Author(s) 2026 Essodolom Taale 1 · Damipie Bomboma 1 · Kossitse V. Akpataku 2 Tiatou Souho 1 · Seyf-laye Alfa-Sika Mande 2 · Tchabi Atti 1 Abstract The traditional production of Tonou and Tchotou mustard in the Kara and Savannah regions of Togo remains artisanal, poorly standardized, and increasingly threatened by industrial seasoning cubes. This study evaluated produc- tion practices, physicochemical composition, and microbi- ological quality through surveys and laboratory analyses. The activity is carried out mainly by women and represents an important source of income, although training in good manufacturing practices is limited. Four types of mustard were identiﬁed, with the néré and soybean blend standing out for its mineral content. However, the samples showed high counts of aerobic microorganisms, yeasts, and molds, exceeding established limits, although Salmonella spp. was not detected. It was concluded that, despite their nutritional value, the microbiological quality of these products is un- satisfactory. Therefore, producers should receive training, hygienic conditions should be improved, and production processes should be standardized. Keywords traditional fermented condiments, alkaline fer- mentation, nutritional composition, microbiological safety. Resumen La producción tradicional de mostaza Tonou y Tchotou en las regiones de Kara y Savannah, Togo, con- tinúa siendo artesanal, poco estandarizada y amenazada por los condimentos industriales. El estudio evaluó las prácti- cas productivas, la composición ﬁsicoquímica y la calidad microbiológica mediante encuestas y análisis de laboratorio. La actividad es desarrollada principalmente por mujeres y representa una fuente importante de ingresos, aunque existe escasa capacitación en buenas prácticas de fabricación. Se identiﬁcaron cuatro tipos de mostaza, destacándose la mezc- la de néré y soja por su contenido mineral. Sin embargo, las muestras presentaron elevados recuentos de microorganis- mos aerobios, levaduras y mohos, superiores a los límites es- tablecidos, aunque no se detectó Salmonella spp. Se concluye que, pese a su valor nutricional, la calidad microbiológica es deﬁciente, por lo que se requiere capacitar a las productoras, mejorar las condiciones higiénicas y estandarizar los pro- cesos de elaboración. Palabras clave condimentos fermentados tradicionales, fermentación alcalina, composición nutricional, seguridad microbiológica. 1 Laboratory of Applied Agronomic and Biological Sciences, University of Kara, Kara, Togo. 2 Laboratory of Organic Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, Department of Chemistry, University of Kara, Kara, Togo. How to cite Taale, E., Bomboma, D., Akpataku, K. V., Souho, T., Alfa-Sika Mande, S.-L., & Atti, T. (2026). Sanitary and Nutritional Quality of Tonou and Tchotou, Traditional Mustards Produced in Northern Togo, West Africa. Journal of Food Science and Gastronomy, 4(2), 14-23. https://doi.org/10.5281/ zenodo.21864368

J. Food Sci. Gastron. (July - December 2026) 4(2): 14-23 15 Introduction African condiments include spices such as chilli, ginger, Guinea pepper, cardamom, and cloves, as well as speciﬁc products such as soumbala (fermented néré seeds) in West Africa. Néré is the common name for Parkia biglobosa, also known as the African locust bean tree. It is a perennial le- gume belonging to the Fabaceae family and has great value across tropical and subtropical Africa. P. biglobosa is appre- ciated for its nutritional, economic, cultural, and medicinal beneﬁts (Musara et al., 2020). All parts of the P. biglobosa tree, including seeds, stems, bark, roots, and leaves, are used. One of the derived products of P. biglobosa in Togo is Tchotou or Tonou or aﬁti, also known as Soumbala in Bur- kina Faso, dawadawa in Ghana, netetu in Senegal, aﬁtin or sonru or iru in Benin (Compaoré et al., 2020), which is an important protein and nutrient source in areas dependent on carbohydrate-rich foods. These are handmade condiments that serve as both ﬂavor enhancers and plant-based protein substitutes, and are produced through a process passed down through generations of women. They are sold primarily in local and regional markets, without regulatory oversight or standardized processes, and without formal market authori- zation, except for any health inspections or the often very limited checks conducted by the agencies responsible for food safety. Soumbala, dawadawa, netetu, aﬁtin, sonru, iru, aﬁti, Tonou, or Tchotou are produced via alkaline fermenta- tion of African locust bean or soybean seeds, enhancing tra- ditional dishes with their strong aroma and rich amino acid content(Owusu-Kwarteng et al., 2022). According to Ouo- ba et al. (2003) and Alphonse (2026), traditional fermented condiments (TFC) such as soumbala or aﬁti have high con- tents of proteins, peptides, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, exopolysaccharides, organic acids, volatile compounds, and fatty acids or short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), gamma-ami- nobutyric acid (GABA), conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs), and branched amino acids. In Togo, aﬁti is used to season sauces and dishes and is renowned for its health beneﬁts. There are various regio- nal varieties, such as Tonou (among the Moba people in the Savannah region) and Tchotou (among the Kabyè people in the Kara region). It can be found in grain, ground, or ball form, oﬀering a powerful taste and providing a powerful ﬂavor to replace chemical seasoning cubes. Despite its nu- tritional and functional beneﬁts, aﬁti remains underutilized from technological, economic, and scientiﬁc perspectives. Its production is largely artisanal and unregulated, which can compromise microbiological quality, food safety, shelf sta- bility, and market competitiveness (Azokpota et al., 2006). Furthermore, scientiﬁc documentation regarding production processes, value chains, local practices, and socio-economic impacts remains limited in Togo, especially regarding the Tchotou and Tonou processes, nutritional composition, and sanitary aspects in the Kara and Savannah regions, which are the main production zones in the country. Thus, this study ai- med to (i) scrutinize the conditions and practices of artisanal production of Tchotou and Tonou in the Kara and Savannah regions of Togo, (ii) determine their chemical and organo- leptic characteristics, and (iii) appraise the microbiological safety of the products. Methodology The current study was conducted among Tonou and Tcho- tou producers in the prefectures of Tône (Savannah region), Kéran, Binah, Doufelgou, and Kozah (Kara region) (Figure 1) regarding the survey on data collection from producers and analyzed at the Laboratoire des Sciences Agronomiques et Biologiques appliquées (LaSABA) for biochemical and microbiological analyses. This study was carried out from July 2023 to September 2024. Figure 1. Map showing the study area.

J. Food Sci. Gastron. (July - December 2026) 4(2): 14-23 16 The questionnaire for the study was designed to align with the socio-demographic characteristics and cultural contexts of people in these regions. The administered questionnaire comprised 48 questions, divided into several sections, inclu- ding producers’ educational level, raw seeds and materials used in Tonou production, mixing and fermentation, storage, and potential medical eﬀects. A cross-sectional survey was conducted with Tonou or Tchotou producers in the Savannah region (n = 15) and the Kara region (n = 45) (Figure 1). A total of 60 producers were surveyed. Verbal consent was sought from traditional mustard produ- cers after explaining the purpose of the study and reassuring them that the data would be kept conﬁdential. Anonymity, conﬁdentiality, and respect for human values were taken into account. During the study, 38 samples of various traditional mus- tard types were collected (Table 1). Each sample weighed approximately 100 g. Table 1. Traditional mustard collected samples Traditional mustard Region Code Number of samples Néré Tonou Savannah N 6 Soybeans Tonou S 5 Mixed soybeans and néré Tonou N+S 7 Tchotou from a mixture of néré seeds and soybeans Kara AT 7 Tchotou from a mixture of kapok-baobab seeds AL 6 Tchotou made with néré seeds HJ 7 Total 38 Samples of Tchotou and Tonou were collected from pro- ducers. The collected samples were subjected to biochemi- cal analysis (moisture and ash content, and mineral compo- sition) and microbiological analysis by counting microbes (total ﬂora, enterobacteria, yeasts, and molds). All analyses were done in triplicate. Moisture and ash content were determined using the standard method described by the Association of Oﬃcial Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1980). Indeed, 5 g of each sample of Tonou and Tchotou was dried in an oven at 75 ºC and weighed every 30 min until a constant weight was rea- ched. Moisture content was then calculated as the percentage of weight loss relative to the fresh sample. For ash content determination, 3 g was dried, ground into a ﬁne powder, and incinerated in a muﬄe furnace at 550 °C for 6 h. The resul- ting ash was weighed, and ash content was expressed as a percentage of dry matter using the following equation: Where m₁ is the mass of the test portion (g), and m₂ is the mass of ash (g). Texture, aroma, taste, and color were assessed during data collection from producers. The texture of the diﬀerent of To- nou and Tchotou was assessed by touch to determine their freshness, ripeness, or state of preparation, using the texture scale. Taste was assessed by the data collectors through tas- ting, smell through the olfactory approach, and color through visual inspection. After incineration, the minerals contained in the ash were solubilized using nitric acid and analyzed by atomic absorp- tion spectrophotometry using an atomic absorption spectro- meter (PG Instruments, model PG990). The ash (3 g) was dissolved in 0.5 mL of concentrated nitric acid (65%), ﬁl- tered using Whatman ﬁlter paper, and the ﬁnal volume was adjusted to 100 mL with distilled water (stock solution). Cal- cium and magnesium were determined by complexometric titration using orthophenanthroline and ethylenediaminete- traacetic acid (AOAC, 2019). Iron and phosphorus contents were measured spectrophotometrically in the presence of hy- droxylamine hydrochloride and molybdic acid, respectively (Kosse et al., 2001). The microbiological quality of Tonou or Tchotou samples collected was assessed in accordance with standard micro- biological norms as reported in Table 2. Table 2. Referenced methods used to assess microbial quality of Tonou and Tchotou products Target microorganisms Culture medium Incubation temperature (°C) / duration (h) References Total aerobic mesophilic ﬂora Plate Count Agar 37 / 24 ISO 4833-1 (2014) Yeasts and molds Sabouraud Chloramphenicol Agar 30 / 72 ISO 21527-2 (2008) Enterobacteria Hektoen Enteric Agar 37 / 72 ISO 21528-2 (2004)

J. Food Sci. Gastron. (July - December 2026) 4(2): 14-23 17 The study utilized descriptive analyses to investigate the demographic attributes of producers and mineral composi- tion by using XLSTAT 2019 version 2.2 (p ≤ 0.05). ANOVA was used to diﬀerentiate nutritional proﬁles between regions and mustard types. Results and discussion The ﬁndings show that the majority of Tonou producers are between 30 and 40 years old (Figure 2). In this context, the results of this study conﬁrm that although soumbala production is artisanal and labor-intensive, it plays a crucial role in the economic resilience of rural women. This ﬁnding aligns with observations by Yérobessor et al. (2020), who highlighted that soumbala processing in Burkina Faso is a female-dominated activity, primarily carried out by middle- aged women under rudimentary and often unhygienic working conditions. This activity represents a cornerstone of household economies, despite remaining largely informal and undervalued. In our study, the women producers, all stay-at-home mothers, reported that they were able to save and reinvest a portion of their income from traditional mustard production, for example, to purchase livestock or other material goods. These ﬁndings demonstrate that this artisanal activity serves as a genuine source of ﬁnancial independence and contributes to the household economy. However, a concerning issue emerged from our survey: the complete absence of generational renewal, as no young girls were involved in the production process. This situation can be explained by several factors, including the arduous nature of the work, the lack of social recognition of the activity, and the absence of technical innovations that could make it more attractive. These observations corroborate the conclusions of Yami et al. (2024), who identiﬁed gender norms, limited access to training, and the lack of appropriate innovations as primary barriers to youth integration in agri-food value chains in Africa. Figure 2. A) Age of Tchotou producers in Kara (n = 45); B) Age of Tonou producers in the Savannah regions (n = 15). An analysis of the results shows that the majority of Tonou and Tchotou producers have not attended school (Figure 3). Indeed, the low level of education observed among the majority of producers represents a signiﬁcant barrier to the qualitative and economic improvement of artisanal Tonou and Tchotou production. This educational gap limits their ability to adopt rigorous hygiene practices, master modern processing techniques, and adapt to the demands of structured markets. Studies on traditional fermented food processing in West Africa indicate that producers often rely on traditional methods, which, while eﬀective for small-scale production, may limit product standardization and competitiveness in larger markets (Oladeji et al., 2025). Figure 3. A) Education level of Tonou producers in the Savannah region (n = 15); B) Tchotou producers in the Kara region (n = 45). Less educated producers continue to use traditional methods, which, while eﬀective for small-scale production, impede product standardization and competitiveness in larger markets. Minimal education signiﬁcantly enhances producers’ ability to manage activities, understand value chains, and access marketing channels (Quisumbing et al., 2021; Maereka et al., 2023). It facilitates participation in training, adoption of innovations, and accounting practices, while strengthening negotiation power in agriculture. An educated producer can better formalize, participate in, and transmit knowledge, aiding in the professionalization of the sector and preservation of local know-how (Yami et al., 2024). The data collected during face-to-face interviews with producers and observations made at production sites enabled us to draw up a diagram of Tchotou and Tonou production in the Kara and Savannah regions. The data collected shows various types of Tonou and Tchotou: Tchotou and Tonou produced solely from néré seeds (Figure 4A), Tchotou and Tonou produced from a mixture of néré and soybeans (Figure 4B), a mixture of Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) and baobab (Adansonia digitata) (Figure 4C), a mixture of soyabeans, néré seeds, and peanuts, and a mixture of néré seeds and peanuts. It appears that it takes an average of eight days to produce Tchotou or Tonou.

J. Food Sci. Gastron. (July - December 2026) 4(2): 14-23 18 Figure 4. Production diagram of Tonou and Tchotou: A) Néré; B) Mixed néré and soybean; C) Mixed baobab and kapok seeds. Figure 5. Types of Tchotou and Tonou. A) Tchotou produced by a mixture of néré and soybean; B) Tchotou produced from kapok baobab seed mixture; C) Tchotou produced only with néré seeds; D) Tonou produced with a mixture of soybeans, néré seeds, and peanuts; E) Tonou produced with a mixture of néré seeds and peanuts. a mild bitterness and aromas reminiscent of lightly roasted seeds. Its aroma is moderate but characteristic of fermented legumes. On the palate, it oﬀers a creamy mouthfeel with a pleasant lingering aftertaste. Tonou and Tchotou made from néré (P. biglobosa) seeds have a ﬁrm exterior and a softer interior when shaped into balls, or a dense, slightly grainy paste after grinding. Its color ranges from light brown to dark brown, depending on the degree of fermentation and drying. Its aroma is intense and characteristic of alkaline fermented products. The taste is Figure 5 depicts the various traditional mustards studied, highlighting their variations in color, texture, and overall appearance. The organoleptic characteristics of the diﬀerent types of Tchotou, including texture, taste, aroma, and color, are summarized in Table 3. Soybean Tonou (Figure 5) is a smooth to slightly grainy paste, ranging in color from light beige to pale yellow. Its texture is soft and creamy, making it easy to spread and incorporate into culinary preparations. In terms of ﬂavor, it has a slightly spicy taste, combined with

J. Food Sci. Gastron. (July - December 2026) 4(2): 14-23 19 Table 3. Comparison of texture, taste, aroma, and color of diﬀerent types of Tchotou and Tonou Type of Tchotou and Tonou Ingredients Texture Taste Aroma Color Néré Fermented néré seeds Dense, slightly granular, malleable Intense umami, slightly salty, and spicy Fermented, strong, typical of soumbala Dark brown light brown Soybean Fermented soybean seeds Creamy, smooth, slightly granular Sweet, slightly spicy, less bitter than néré Subtle, nutty Light beige pale yellow Baobab and Kapok Baobab and kapok seeds Dense, slightly granular, ﬁrm Sweet-bitter, mildly spicy Roasted and herbal notes, light Light beige light brown Néré-soybean blend Néré and soybean seeds Creamy but slightly granular Balanced umami with soybean sweetness Fermented but less intense than néré alone Light brown, medium brown Kapok-baobab- soybean (optional) Kapok, baobab, and soybean seeds Dense and pliable, slightly granular Sweet-bitter with moderate umami Roasted, herbal, subtle Medium beige light brown commonly used as food condiments in all types of sauces served with cereal-based doughs. These include viscous sauces (made from okra, adémé, or baobab leaves), as well as leafy vegetable sauces (such as gboma, basil, and Guinea sorrel). Furthermore, they could be consumed fresh, uncooked, or served with rice. In some cases, it is incorporated directly into the cooking process, for example, in tomato-based sauces (Fatoumata et al., 2016). The biochemical analyses focused on moisture content, ash content, and mineral composition, as these parameters are recognized as essential for evaluating nutritional quality. Moisture content directly inﬂuences microbial growth, while ash content and the mineral proﬁle provide an overall characterization of the product’s mineral composition, which is critical for food quality and safety (Rahman, 2020). Moisture and mineral composition of Tchotou from the Kara region and Tonou produced in the Savannah are reported in Table 4. Statistical analysis showed signiﬁcant diﬀerences among Tonou and Tchotou formulations for all variables evaluated (p ≤ 0.05). pronounced, simultaneously salty, slightly bitter, and pungent, with a strong aftertaste linked to compounds produced by protein breakdown. Tchotou and Tonou, prepared from a mixture of néré and soybeans, have an intermediate texture, both creamy and slightly grainy. It is pliable and easy to handle, while retaining some heterogeneity due to the néré particles. Its color ranges from dark beige to light brown. The ﬂavor proﬁle is balanced, combining the umami and salty ﬂavor of néré with the relative mildness of soybeans and a slight bitterness. The aroma results from the combination of néré’s fermented compounds and the milder aromatic compounds of soybeans. On the palate, the texture is creamy with moderate aromatic persistence. Tchotou, made from baobab and kapok seeds, has a dense and slightly grainy texture. Its color ranges from light beige to light brown. The taste is characterized by a slight bitterness combined with moderate spiciness. This product also has a relatively high-water content, which inﬂuences its texture and may aﬀect its stability during storage. According to our ﬁndings, Tonou and Tchotou are Table 4. Moisture and mineral composition of Tchotou from the Kara region and Tonou produced in the Savannah Sample Moisture (%) Ash (%) Mg (mg/100 g) Ca (mg/100 g) Fe (mg/100 g) P (mg/100 g) Tonou (n = 18) N 31.33± 0.26 4.36 ± 0.49 303.45±0.68 234.39±0.24 18.40± 0.34 152.95±0.16 N+S 33.76± 0.35 3.06 ± 0.07 321.80± 0.34 233.09± 0.10 20.05± 0.16 162.70±0.34 S 30.95± 0.47 2.99 ± 0.07 287.30± 0.36 28.72 ± 0.59 13.55 ±0.54 112.33±0.15 Tchotou (n = 20) HJ 14.36 ± 0.13 5.12 ± 0.06 138.30 ± 0.65 217.30 ± 0.65 13.32 ± 0.91 121.22±0.20 AT 17.37 ± 0.36 3.85 ± 0.16 179.40 ± 0.81 229.87 ± 0.99 17.32 ± 0.06 112.07±0.01 AL 34.68 ± 0.12 5.86 ± 0.15 129.40 ± 0.78 220.82 ± 0.20 10.82 ± 0.74 110.57±0.71 n: number of samples. Each analysis was carried out in triplicate. N: néré Tonou; N+S: mixed soyabeans and néré Tonou; S: soybeans Tonou; HJ: Tchotou made with néré seeds; AT: Tchotou made with a mixture of néré seeds and soyabeans; AL: Tchotou made with a mixture of kapok-baobab seeds.

J. Food Sci. Gastron. (July - December 2026) 4(2): 14-23 20 ANOVA conﬁrmed that sample type and processing method signiﬁcantly inﬂuenced the biochemical characteristics and mineral composition of the products. Moisture content in the samples ranged from 14.36% (HJ, Kara) to 34.68% (AL, Kara). Tchotou from the Kara region exhibited higher moisture levels, particularly a mixture of néré seeds and soyabeans Tchotou, while all Tonou samples from the Savannah region showed moisture contents between 30.95 and 33.76%. Several studies conducted in various West African countries gave similar results. Guissou et al. (2020), Kambire et al. (2021), and Kouamé et al. (2021) found 5.02, 7.3 to 24.7%, and 16.50 to 19.28% for the moisture content of soumbala produced by home technology in Burkina Faso and Côte d’Ivoire, respectively. This discrepancy may be explained by shorter drying times, higher ambient humidity in the Kara and Savannah regions, or prolonged fermentation leading to greater water retention. Ash content, which reﬂects the overall mineral richness, varied from 2.99% (soybeans Tonou from Savannah) to 5.86% (Tchotou made with a mixture of kapok-baobab seeds from the Kara region). Guissou et al. (2020) and Marcel et al. (2022) had reported 3.42% and 4.00% of ash content of soumbara produced in Burkina Faso and in Korhogo (Côte d’Ivoire). The Tchotou samples with the highest ash content indicate good mineral availability, likely due to the use of unhusked néré seeds or longer fermentation periods, which may promote the release of minerals. Furthermore, the addition of ash and other seeds or ingredients (soyabeans, peanuts, kapok seeds) during the production of Tchotou and Tonou could contribute to the increase in the ash content of the produced mustards. Ash is mainly composed of minerals. Minerals are essential inorganic nutrients obtained from food, required for body functions like bone building, ﬂuid balance, and metabolism. Iron content of Tchotou and Tonou ranged from 10.82 ± 0.74 to 17.32 ± 0.06 mg/ 100 g, and from 13.55 ± 0.54 to 20.05 mg/100 g, respectively, for each product. The value of iron was lower than 26.27 mg/100 g and 34.44 mg/100 g, reported by Guissou et al. (2020) in Burkina Faso and Marcel et al. (2022) in Côte d’Ivoire, respectively, for soumbala nutritional composition. This variation in iron content of traditional mustards observed from one country to another could be explained by diﬀerences in seed content due to soil composition and/or climate, as well as traditional processing methods. Magnesium is particularly important because of its central role in over 300 enzymatic reactions, particularly those related to energy metabolism, neuromuscular function, and bone health (Fatima et al., 2024). Tonou and Tchotou contained magnesium ranging from 129.40 ± 0.78 mg/100 g to 321.80 ± 0.34 mg/100 g. The calcium content of Tonou and Tchotou ranged respectively from 28.72 ± 0.59 to 234.39±0.24 mg/100 g and from 217.30 ± 0.65 to 229.87 ± 0.99 mg/100 g. According to Laetitia et al. (2022), condiments made from oilseeds are known for their calcium content, which is an essential mineral for acid-base balance and energy metabolism. Furthermore, calcium is an essential component of teeth and bones, promoting robust bone development and growth in children who regularly consume it. Yérobessor et al. (2022) reported that Soumbala is a signiﬁcant source of calcium, protein, fat, carbohydrates, B vitamins, and minerals such as iron and phosphorus. Their ﬁndings coincide with those of the present work, since the samples from Tonou and Tchotou showed relatively acceptable levels of phosphorus. Indeed, phosphorus content varied from 110.57 mg/100 g (Tchotou) to 162.70 mg/100 g (Tonou). These results indicate that formulations made from the néré-soybean mixture may oﬀer better phosphorus availability, likely due to the nutritional complementarity of the two seed types. Samples from the Savannah region showed uniform moisture and mineral content, while Kara samples had greater variability and higher moisture levels. The combination of néré (P. biglobosa) and soybean improved moisture and mineral levels. Thus, Tonou and Tchotou signiﬁcantly contribute to nutritional security by enhancing protein bioavailability and supplying essential amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids, and minerals, which are critical in regions like Kara and Savannah reliant on carbohydrate-rich staples (Djoudi et al., 2022; Obafemi et al., 2022). Table 5. Microbiological quality of Tonou and Tchotou samples Sample Total aerobic mesophilic ﬂora (CFU/g) Yeasts and molds (CFU/g) Salmonella spp. (per 10 g) Tonou N (n = 6) 2.02×10⁶ 1.23×10³ Absent N+S (n = 7) 2.45×10⁷ 2.76×10⁴ Absent S (n = 5) 2.25×10⁷ 2.95×10⁴ Absent Tchotou HJ (n = 7) 1.70×10⁷ 3.86×10³ Absent AT (n = 7) 2.93×10⁷ 3.43×10³ Absent AL (n = 6) 2.89×10⁸ 2.27×10⁴ Absent n: number of samples.

J. Food Sci. Gastron. (July - December 2026) 4(2): 14-23 21 Microbiological analyses focused on total aerobic mesophilic ﬂora, yeasts and molds, and Salmonella spp. (Table 5).Due to the physicochemical characteristics of mustard (acidic pH, low water activity, possible presence of preservatives), which are generally unfavorable for the growth of many pathogenic microorganisms. This analytical approach enables a relevant assessment of the hygienic quality and microbiological safety of the product. It complies with the criteria established by Regulation No. 2073/2005 of the European Commission (European Commission, 2005) on microbiological criteria for foodstuﬀs. Microbiological analyses of Tchotou and Tonou from the Kara and Savannah regions in Togo showed TAMF counts ranging from 2.02×10⁶ to 2.89×10⁸ CFU/g, well above the EU limit of 5×10⁴ CFU/g (EC, 2005). These results align with TMF levels reported in other traditional fermented products in West Africa (Kambire et al., 2021). However, some samples had higher microbial loads, indicating possible diﬀerences in local production practices or hygiene controls. It is recommended that the authorities implement training programs in Good Manufacturing Practices for producers. Yeast and mold counts ranged from 1.23×10³ to 2.95×10⁴ CFU/g, indicating intense fermentative activity. Similar ﬁndings were reported by Souley et al. (2020), who observed yeast and mold counts between 5.0×10² and 1.2×10⁴ CFU/g in soumbala from Niger. Although these microorganisms are generally non-pathogenic, their presence is considered technologically beneﬁcial. Indeed, yeasts and molds play an active role in fermentation by contributing to macronutrient breakdown, to the production of volatile compounds, and the development of sensory characteristics such as aroma, ﬂavor, and texture in fermented condiments (Yérobessor et al., 2022). Salmonella spp. were absent in all analyzed samples, which is consistent with ﬁndings reported by Fatoumata et al. (2016) on fermented condiments produced from P. biglobosa and Glycine max in Côte d’Ivoire. This absence may reﬂect good hygienic practices during production and storage, as well as the inhibitory eﬀects of fermentation processes, contributing to the microbiological safety of the ﬁnal products. Tchotou and Tonou are traditional West African condiments widely used not only for their sensory properties but also for their medicinal beneﬁts. According to the survey, 99% of the women producers interviewed reported using this condiment in the treatment of high blood pressure, 60.23% for abdominal pain, and 43.45% in the management of malaria. According to Law et al. (2024), the known medical eﬀects of seeds, condiments, aﬁtin, soumbala, or netetu are their potential antihypertensive eﬀects, which have been observed in populations with long-term consumption. In light of the results obtained, it would be advisable for public health studies to prioritize the consumption of Tchotou and Tonou. The assessment of the organoleptic quality of the various types of traditional mustard studied was not carried out by a panel of tasters, but rather by visual inspection for color, by smell for odor, and by touch for texture. The production diagrams show that the production methods for Tonou and Tchotou are not standardized. Furthermore, speciﬁc pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and mycotoxin-producing fungi were not taken into account in this study. However, these aforementioned limitations do not detract from the relevance of the results, which constitute an essential step in guiding corrective measures and future work. Further studies incorporating microbiological analyses for S. aureus, B. cereus, and mycotoxin-producing fungi, as well as the biochemical and molecular identiﬁcation of the various isolated pathogens, would help to better document the actual level of consumer exposure to the various causes of mass foodborne infections. Conclusions Tchotou and Tonou, produced from P. biglobosa, G. max, C. pentandra, and A. digitata seeds, constitute nutrient-dense traditional condiments with signiﬁcant socio-economic im- portance for rural women in Northern Togo. Physicochemi- cal analyses revealed high levels of essential minerals, while microbiological assessments indicated an overall acceptable level of safety despite active fermentation processes. These ﬁndings highlight the need to improve artisanal processing techniques and hygiene practices by training producers to ensure better product quality and standardization. Future re- search should explore the impact of implementing standar- dized production protocols and targeted training programs for producers, with the aim of enhancing nutritional value, improving food safety, and supporting the sustainability of this traditional food system. Furthermore, we plan to isolate strains with probiotic properties and also to optimize the fer- mentation process. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank all the producers for their time, their hospitality, and the trust they showed during the interviews. The purpose of this study is to highlight your products, whose beneﬁts to consumers are well established. We also thank the PhD students Essoyodou Marcelle Kabas- sina, Essowèréou Abel Abli, and Koﬃ Batchazi, as well as the undergraduate students David M’poh N’Tcha, Yendu- name Bomboma, Tchilalo Egbare, and Essohanam Blanche Somdiabalo, for their contributions to this study. References Alphonse, L. (2026). 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