Colorantes naturales en la industria alimentaria: el rol de las antocianinas y su proceso de secado por aspersión J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13975102ISSN: 3073-1283 REVIEW ARTICLE Natural colorants in the food industry: the role of anthocyanins and their spray drying process Daliannis Rodríguez rcdaly92@gmail.com 1 Instituto de Farmacia y Alimentos, Universidad de La Habana, Cuba. Received: 9 December 2022 / Accepted: 13 January 2023 / Published online: 31 January 2023© The Author(s) 2023 Daliannis Rodríguez 1 Abstract The use of natural colorants in the food indus-try has garnered increasing interest due to the demand for healthier and safer products for consumers. Among these colorants, anthocyanins, compounds found in various fruits and vegetables, stand out for their ability to provide vibrant colors and their antioxidant properties. However, their in-dustrial application faces challenges related to their stabil-ity against factors such as light, pH, and temperature. This review described the role of anthocyanins as natural colo- rants, addressing their properties, benefts, and limitations in food products. Additionally, spray drying was analyzed as a promising technique to improve the stability and shelf life of anthocyanins, facilitating their efective incorporation into the industry. Recent studies on the impact of this process on the bioactive properties of anthocyanins were reviewed, as well as their application in the development of food products utilizing natural colorants. Keywords anthocyanins, natural colorants, food industry, stability, spray drying, antioxidant properties. Resumen El uso de colorantes naturales en la industria alimentaria ha suscitado un creciente interés debido a la demanda de productos más saludables y seguros para los consumidores. Entre estos colorantes, las antocianinas, com-puestos presentes en diversas frutas y hortalizas, se destacan por su capacidad para proporcionar colores vibrantes y por sus propiedades antioxidantes. Sin embargo, su aplicación industrial enfrenta desafíos relacionados con su estabilidad ante factores como la luz, pH y temperatura. Esta revisión describió el papel de las antocianinas como colorantes na- turales, abordando sus propiedades, benefcios y limitacio -nes en productos alimentarios. Además, se analizó el secado por aspersión como una técnica prometedora para mejorar la estabilidad y la vida útil de las antocianinas, facilitando su incorporación efcaz en la industria. Se revisaron estudios recientes sobre el impacto de este proceso en las propiedades bioactivas de las antocianinas, así como su aplicación en el desarrollo de productos alimentarios que utilizan colorantes naturales. Palabras clave antocianinas, colorantes naturales, industria alimentaria, estabilidad, secado por aspersión, propiedades antioxidantes. How to cite Rodríguez, D. (2023) Natural colorants in the food industry: the role of anthocyanins and their spray drying process. Journal of Food Science and Gastronomy , 1(1), 22-34. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13975102
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 23 Introduction Color is a quality characteristic of food products. Colorants are added to food for various functions: to make them more attractive, to counteract color loss during processing, to en- hance quality, and to infuence consumers to purchase them (Madhava & Sowbhagya, 2012). Color plays a fundamental role, as it is associated with a favor threshold, a perception of sweetness, food preference, and acceptability (Clydesda-le, 1993). According to Downham & Collins (2000), there are four types of colorants available in the food market: syn-thetic (42%), natural (27%), nature-identical (20%), and ca-ramel (10%).The use of synthetic colorants is supported by their lower cost, stability, and brightness compared to natural colorants. However, various studies have linked some of them to car-cinogenesis, genotoxicity, and neurotoxicity (Kobylewski & Jacobson, 2010). Natural colorants, on the other hand, are derived from inexhaustible sources, such as plant material, insects, algae, cyanobacteria, and fungi (Mortensen, 2006). Recent consu-mer trends demand natural products with therapeutic and medicinal properties, among other reasons, which are related to the toxicity attributed to synthetic colorants (Chaitanya, 2014).Anthocyanins are pigments responsible for a range of co- lors that span from red to purple in fowers, fruits, leaves, stems, and roots of plants (Castañeda et al., 2009). These pigments are favonoids with antioxidant activity that have been linked to the prevention of cardiovascular, and neuro-logical diseases, cancer, and diabetes (Konczak & Zhang, 2004). The color and stability of anthocyanins are afected by va -rious extrinsic and intrinsic factors (Enaru et al., 2021). In this sense, spray drying is a cost-efective method that pre -serves the colorant by trapping the bioactive ingredient wi-thin the encapsulating material (Cai & Corke, 2000).The objective of this article was to describe the use of an-thocyanins as natural colorants in the food industry, with a particular focus on anthocyanins, evaluating their potential as alternatives to synthetic colorants. Additionally, the spray drying process will be examined as a key technique for pre-serving their bioactive properties and stability, highlighting its impact on the quality of the fnal product. Food additives A food additive is any substance that is not normally con-sumed as a food itself, nor is it used as a basic ingredient in food, whether or not it has nutritional value, and whose addition to food during its production, manufacturing, prepa-ration, treatment, packaging, transport, or storage results (or can reasonably be expected to result) directly or indirectly in itself or its by-products becoming a component of the food or afecting its characteristics. This defnition does not inclu -de contaminants or substances added to food to maintain or improve nutritional qualities (NC 277, 2008).The use of additives must be regulated by professional ethics, as they must provide a beneft to the food, either by improving it or by extending its shelf life. An excess of them would transform them into contaminants or constitute fraud (Valle, 2000).The search for a balance between the safety of their intake and the technological beneft they provide to foods is essen -tial due to the need for their use (Parra, 2004). There are diferent types of additives, including preserva - tives, colorants, enhancers, antioxidants, favorings, nutritive and non-nutritive sweeteners, vitamins, amino acids, nucleo-tides, carbohydrates (gums, sugars, among others), stabili- zers, thickeners, emulsifers, enzymes, minerals, and others (Castillo, 2016). Food colorants Color is the frst sensory impression of a product; it can even infuence the perception of its smell, taste, temperatu - re, texture, and even nutrient content (Valle, 2000; Lakshmi, 2014). Both color and its uniformity are important compo-nents in the visual quality of foods and play a crucial role in consumer choice (Brennan, 2008), and therefore in the suc-cess or failure of a product. Foods in their natural state have colors that vary both with the seasonality of the raw material and with the technological treatments applied during proces- sing (Valle, 2000; Ibáñez et al., 2003). Colorants are substances that can have either a natural or an artifcial origin (Badui, 2006) and are used either to en -hance the color of certain foods, those that have lost color during industrial treatment or to make them more attractive. They can also be defned as those substances that add co -lor to a food, including natural components (Parra, 2004). In other words, they are the group of additives responsible for providing the desired and expected color of each food, that is, they provide, reinforce, or homogenize its color to make it more appealing to consumers (Cubero et al., 2002). Their use ensures a standardized tone in food products (Masone et al., 2015).Synthetic colorants provide greater intensity of coloration (requiring a smaller amount of colorant to achieve the same efect), ofer a wider range of colors, are more stable to li -ght, pH, and temperature, are easier to reproduce the desired color, and have lower probabilities of interacting with other additives (Astiasarán et al., 2003).Consumer concern about the safety of synthetic colorants has increased interest in using natural colorants as additives (Gil, 2010), making them increasingly popular (Martins et al., 2016) for being less toxic and harmful to health, as well
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 24 as having a lower environmental impact (Silva, 2006). For this reason, the search for alternatives to synthetic colorants is a challenge in which the agro-industrial sector invests all its resources (Cano, 2011).Parra (2004) conducted a comparative study between the use of synthetic and natural colorants, concluding that syn-thetic colorants have better functional and technological cha-racteristics than natural ones, making them more suitable for use as additives in a wide range of foods. In other words, they are more stable, provide better color uniformity, and mix more easily, resulting in a wide range of shades.In contrast, other studies have reported that synthetic co- lorants have numerous side efects. These include allergic reactions, such as allergic gastroenteritis (Prado et al., 2012). Recent studies focus primarily on the connection between these colorants and behavioral disorders in children (Am-chova et al., 2015). Some even promote hypersensitivity re-actions causing urticaria, angioedema, and asthma (Vidotti et al., 2006).This has favored interest in obtaining colorants from na-tural sources as possible substitutes for synthetic colorants, as there is currently no evidence of their toxicity in humans (Soria et al., 2007). Anthocyanins have thus become an in-teresting option in this regard due to their antioxidant and cytotoxic activities (Kong et al., 2003). Natural Dyes Most natural dyes are of plant origin; they can be pure compounds or products of extraction. The latter are obtained from food raw materials and may be associated with other molecules. The main natural pigments belong to three major categories: porphyrin pigments, which include chlorophylls and heme pigments; carotenoids, which include β-carotene, lycopene, and xanthophylls; and fnally, favonoids and their derivatives (Linden & Lorient, 1996).Natural dyes are replacing synthetic ones due to their safe- ty and lack of serious side efects. Their disadvantage is that larger amounts of the active principle are needed for indus-trial use, unlike synthetics, which are produced on a large scale and at low cost (Vásquez, 2012). Anthocyanins: general overview Flavonoids are one of the most distinctive groups of se- condary metabolites in higher plants (Winkel-Shirley, 2001); in turn, anthocyanins are the most important group of favo -noid pigments in plants. Anthocyanins are non-nitrogenous water-soluble plant compounds (Badui, 2006), considered favonoids because they have the C6-C3-C6 carbon skeleton (Fennema, 2000; Garzón, 2008). They are glycosides of anthocyanidins, which are aglyco-ne bound to a sugar via a glycosidic bond and consist of two aromatic rings A and B connected by a three-carbon chain. The diferences between anthocyanins are related to trans -formations in the chemical structure of the B ring, such as the number of hydroxyl groups, sugars, and aliphatic or aro-matic acids attached to the molecule, as well as the position of the attachments (Kong et al., 2003).Among the sugars that are part of the molecule, in order of abundance, are glucose, rhamnose, galactose, xylose, and arabinose, and occasionally, gentiobiose, rutinose, and so-phorose (Badui, 2006). The basic skeleton of anthocyanins is the 2-phenylbenzopyrilium salt of favilium with diferent substitutions (Sousa et al., 2005). Anthocyanic pigments (an-thocyanins) are hydroxylated and methoxylated derivatives of the salt (Eder, 1996). Approximately 20 anthocyanidins are known; the most important ones are pelargonidin, delphinidin, cyanidin, pe-tunidin, peonidin, and malvidin, names that derive from the plant source from which they were frst isolated. The com - bination of these aglycones with diferent sugars generates approximately 300 anthocyanins, which are responsible for a wide range of colors, from colorless to purple (Badui, 2006).The color of anthocyanins depends on the number and orientation of hydroxyl and methoxy groups in the molecu-le. Increases in hydroxylation produce shifts towards blue hues, while increases in methoxylation produce red colors (Stintzing et al., 2002). On the other hand, glycosylation and acylation of the sugars increase the stability of the pigment (Giusti & Wrolstad, 2003). Stability of anthocyanins The stability of anthocyanins is related to the degree of oxi-dation, temperature, ionic strength, acidity, interaction with other complex molecules and free radicals (Garzón, 2008), chemical structure, concentration, light, oxygen, solvents, presence of enzymes, favonoids, proteins, and metal ions (Castañeda et al., 2009; Olaya et al., 2009; Owusu, 2005).pH afects the structure, color, and stability of anthocya - nins due to the transition of diferent chemical species. This phenomenon is known as the bathochromic efect. As pH in -creases, it shifts from the orange-red of pelargonidin in aci-dic conditions to the intense violet-red of cyanidin in neutral conditions, and to the purple-blue of delphinidin in alkaline media (Garzón, 2008). At acidic pH, it exists in its most sta- ble form as the red-favilium cation; at pH values close to neutrality, it appears as chalcone or hemiacetal, which are unstable and colorless forms, and at higher pH, it becomes a highly oxidation-sensitive purple quinoid form (Brouillard, 1982).
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 25 Bordignon et al. (2009) studied the extraction of anthoc-yanins from strawberries (Fragaria vesca L.) in the pH ran-ge of 1 to 13 and found that the best extraction occurred at the lowest pH value. Zapata (2014) reported that at a pH of 2.1, optimal extraction of total anthocyanins in blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) was achieved. As pH increased, the anthocyanin content began to decrease due to the degra- dation of the favilium cation, leading to the formation of hemiacetal and chalcone, both of which are unstable forms.Moldovan et al. (2012) studied the degradation kinetics of anthocyanins present in extracts of sour blueberries ( Vibur-num opulus L.) during storage at pH 3 and 7, concluding that the lowest degradation occurred at the lowest pH va- lue. Laleh et al. (2006) investigated the infuence of pH on anthocyanin extracts from four species of the genus Berbe-ris, observing that the lower the pH, the less degradation of anthocyanins occurred. For this reason, the practical use of these pigments as natural dyes is limited to acidic foods with pH below 3.5 (Francis, 1995; Hutchings, 1999). High temperatures cause the degradation of these pig-ments by causing the loss of sugar from the molecule, resul-ting in the opening of the ring and the formation of chalcones (Falcão et al., 2008). High temperatures can lead to the loss of the glycosylating sugar at position 3 of the molecule and the opening of the pyran ring, resulting in the production of colorless chalcones (Falcão et al., 2008; Garzón, 2008; Fal -cão, 2003).Kirca et al. (2006) studied the stability of anthocyanins from black carrots (Daucus carota L.) added to fruit juices (apple, grape, orange, grapefruit, tangerine, and lemon) and nectars (apricot, peach, and pineapple). The juices were sub-jected to thermal treatments in a range of 70 to 90 °C and then stored between 4 and 37 °C. The results showed that the degradation of anthocyanins was greater in products treated at 90 °C.On the other hand, Pereira et al. (2010) studied the degra-dation kinetics of anthocyanins during the thermal treatment of blueberry juice between 40 and 80 °C, noting that this was frst-order degradation and that degradation was greater at higher temperature values. Similar results were reported by Wang & Xu (2007) when studying the degradation kinetics of anthocyanins in blackberry juice during thermal treatment and storage. Likewise, Moldovan et al. (2012) reported that the degradation kinetics of anthocyanins in extracts of sour blueberries ( Viburnum opulus L.) during storage between 2 and 75 °C resulted in frst-order kinetics.The rate of degradation of this factor is also infuenced by the presence of oxygen, pH, and structural conformation. In general, the structural characteristics that lead to increased stability against pH changes also lead to thermal stability. Highly hydrolyzed anthocyanidins are less stable than me-thylated, glycosylated, or acetylated forms (Fennema, 2000).Rebolledo (2007) reported similar results in a concentrate of cranberry juice (Vaccinium macrocarpon) obtained by na- nofltration; the concentration of anthocyanins present in the concentrated juice decreased with thermal treatments depen-ding on the temperature, in an almost linear function. Howe- ver, the color was not afected by either thermal treatments or storage time. Oxygen afects anthocyanins directly by oxidizing them or indirectly by oxidizing constituents in the medium that then react with the anthocyanins (Falcão, 2003), resulting in the formation of brown or colorless products. Anthocyanins can react with oxygen radicals, acting as antioxidants. These oxidation mechanisms are favored when the temperature in-creases (Rein, 2005). The efects of oxygen and ascorbic acid on the stability of anthocyanins are related. Ascorbic acid decolorizes anthoc-yanins in the presence of oxygen, copper, and iron ions by forming hydrogen peroxide, resulting in the degradation of both compounds when stored for extended periods (Badui, 2006). This reaction is inhibited in the presence of favonols such as quercetin. Hydrogen peroxide acts by breaking the pyrilium ring of the anthocyanin through a nucleophilic at-tack at C-2, producing colorless esters and coumarin deriva-tives. These degradation products are destroyed and polyme-rized to form brown precipitates (Fennema, 2000). The efect of ascorbic acid on the stability of anthocya -nins has been explained as a possible condensation reaction between the acid and the pigments (Poei-Langston & Wrols- tad, 1981). Ferreira et al. (2007), when studying the efect of light on the stability of anthocyanins in white spinach fruit extract, concluded that light had an adverse efect on their stability. Laleh et al. (2006) reached the same conclusion in their research regarding the stability of anthocyanins present in extracts of fruits from four species of the genus Berberis, as did Devi et al. (2012) when studying the stability of antho-cyanins extracted from red sorghum bran. Cevallos-Casals & Cisneros (2004) found that during exposure to light, the purple-feshed sweet potato dyes were degraded more slowly than the anthocyanins from purple corn, suggesting a protec- tive efect of acylation in the anthocyanin molecule. Anthocyanins change color when they form complexes, chelates, and salts with sodium, potassium, calcium, mag- nesium, tin, iron, or aluminum ions; for this reason, it is re -commended that cans used for packaging foods containing anthocyanins be coated with a protective lacquer to minimi-ze their interaction with undesirable metals (Badui, 2006). The nature of the sugars infuences the stability of antho -cyanins. For example, anthocyanin containing galactose is more stable than that with arabinose (Lock, 1997). Sugars at high concentrations, as occurs in fruit preserves, stabilize an-
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 26 thocyanins. This efect is believed to be due to the reduction in water activity (a w ). The nucleophilic attack of water on the favilium cation occurs at position C-2, forming a colorless carbinol base. When sugars are present in concentrations low enough to have little efect on a w , they or their degradation products can sometimes accelerate the degradation of antho-cyanins.At low concentrations, fructose, arabinose, lactose, and sorbose have a greater degrading efect on anthocyanins than glucose, sucrose, and maltose. The degradation rate of an-thocyanin follows the degradation rate of sugar to furfural. Furfural, which is derived from aldopentoses, and hydroxy-methylfurfural, a derivative of ketohexoses, result from the Maillard reaction or from the oxidation of ascorbic acid. These compounds easily condense with anthocyanins, for-ming brown compounds. The mechanism of this reaction is unknown. It is highly temperature-dependent, accelerated by the presence of oxygen, and is very evident in fruit juices (Fennema, 1995).On the other hand, the concentration of the pigment and a w of the medium afect the stability of the color of antho - cyanins (Garzón & Wrolstad, 2001; Garzón & Wrolstad, 2002). Olaya et al. (2009) observed that a w of 0.35 caused the highest rate of degradation in anthocyanins from Castilla blackberries ( Rubus glaucus Benth) and tamarillo ( Solanum betaceum Cav.) at a storage temperature of 40 °C. The cause of the degradation of anthocyanins due to a w is likely due to increased interaction between water and the favilium cation, leading to the formation of an unstable pseudobase (Garzón & Wrolstad, 2001; Fleschhut et al., 2006). Garzón & Wrolstad (2002) demonstrated that increasing the pigment concentration in concentrated strawberry juices improved the stability of anthocyanins, delaying color chan-ge compared to non-concentrated strawberry juice stored at 25 °C. The water molecule is involved in reactions that de-teriorate anthocyanins, so its removal is advisable to reduce the chances of nucleophilic attack on the favilium cation (Zapata, 2014).Falcão et al. (2008) reported in their study evaluating the stability of anthocyanins from crude extracts of Cabernet Sauvignon grape skins (Vitis vinifera L.) that the half-life of anthocyanins and the percentage of color retention were higher at a temperature of 4 ± 1 °C, at pH = 3, and in the ab-sence of light. However, anthocyanin degradation was grea-ter when the storage temperature was 29 ± 2 °C under the same conditions. Ersus and Yurdagel (2007) observed a simi-lar behavior in microencapsulated black carrot anthocyanins, where the half-life of the pigments was three times greater at 4 °C compared to storage at 25 °C. In general, anthocyanins are more stable in acidic media, free of oxygen under cold conditions, and in the dark (Eder, 1996). Sources of anthocyanins Anthocyanins are a group of water-soluble natural pig-ments that impart red, purple, and blue coloration to many fruits such as cherries, plums, strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries, among others (Fennema, 2000; Castañeda et al., 2009). Other sources of anthocyanins include cereals (purple corn) and some vegetables (Escribano-Bailón et al., 2004).Anthocyanins are among the most well-known natural co-lorants. They are responsible for the red, orange, blue, and purple colors of cherries, plums, strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, grapes, red and black raisins (Lepidot et al., 1999), as well as apples, roses, and other plant-derived pro- ducts like fowers (Badui, 2006). They signifcantly infuen -ce the sensory characteristics of foods due to their attractive colors and potential health benefts (Castañeda et al., 2009; Bridgers et al., 2010; Aguilera-Otíz et al., 2011). In recent years, the study of anthocyanins in tropical fruits has gained momentum due to their coloring capacity (Gar- zón, 2008). Anthocyanins have been identifed and quanti - fed in some tropical fruits such as acerola ( Malphigia emar-ginata ), jussara ( Euterpe edulis ), guajiru ( Chrysobalanus icaco ), and jambolan or black cherry ( S. cumini ) (De Brito et al., 2007). Drying processes The food industry has a signifcant interest in powdered additives, particularly concerning their stability (physical, chemical, and microbiological), cost reduction in transpor-tation and packaging, as well as for preparing dry products (Schmitz-Schug et al., 2013).There are many drying techniques such as spray drying, freeze-drying, and tray drying that have been developed to increase productivity and achieve better process control to enhance product quality (Cano-Chauca et al., 2015). Both freeze-drying and spray-drying ofer a clear advantage in ob -taining products with low moisture content and high sensory, nutritional, and functional quality (Mosquera, 2010).Freeze-drying is a unit operation by which frozen water in food passes directly from a solid state to a vapor state under high vacuum pressure (Rodríguez, 1986). According to Lia- pis & Litchefel (1979), the most important characteristic to highlight about this operation is the excellent quality of its products, primarily due to the large amount of water remo-ved, low thermal degradation, retention of volatile materials responsible for aroma and favor, and the rigid structure of the dried material.Another important feature of freeze-drying is the easy re-hydration and original reconstruction of the dried products, due to the low degree of cellular and structural breakage (Boss, 2004). However, freeze-drying is a highly costly te-
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 27 chnique, in addition to the long periods required to obtain a product in optimal conditions. The energy expenditure invol-ved in the process is high, considering that the raw material must undergo two processes, plus the energy necessary for handling the residual water (Barbosa-Cánovas et al., 2005). These factors have limited the expansion of its use not only in the food industry but also in the pharmaceutical sector, paving the way for other less costly and more efcient tech -niques, such as spray drying (Mosquera, 2010). Spray drying Natural colorants have gained signifcant importance in the global market, leading to the need to obtain them in pow-dered form to facilitate their transport and dosing, using a drying treatment under conditions that do not damage the product (Devia & Saldarriaga, 2005). Spray drying is a unit operation that transforms liquid substances into powder, fa-cilitating their preservation, storage, transport, and handling, among others (Bhandari et al., 2008), and ofers high ef -ciency and the ability to conserve the natural components present in these products (Bahnasawy et al., 2010).The transformation from liquid to dry particles requires four basic stages: feeding atomization, air-liquid contact, water evaporation, and particle separation. It is the most common technique for microencapsulating components in the food industry; furthermore, it is the cheapest, with pro -duction costs lower than most other methods (Chhun, 2006). Drying conditions determine efcient microencapsulation; the operational factors that infuence it the most are feed fow rate, inlet and outlet air temperatures, and feed temperature (Liu et al., 2004), types of carriers and their concentration (Krishnaiah et al., 2014). The feed temperature relates to vis- cosity; as the temperature increases, the viscosity and droplet size increase. The inlet temperature determines the drying rate and fnal moisture content of the product (Dubernet & Benoit, 1986).Air temperatures control the moisture content of the pow-dered product. As the inlet temperature increases and the temperature diference in the dryer decreases, the moisture in the product will decrease. Most products dried by spray dr-ying contain 1 to 6% moisture (Reineccius, 2006). Although drying temperatures are high, process times are short com-pared to other drying processes, making this technique more cost-efective for heat-sensitive materials (Mosquera, 2010). The drying of fruit juices, like that of other products with high sugar content, presents technical difculties due to their high hygroscopicity and thermoplasticity under high tempe-rature and humidity conditions (Adhikari et al., 2004). Du-ring the drying of these products, syrup can remain on the walls of the drying chamber. Additionally, there is the issue of unwanted agglomeration in the drying chamber and con-duits, which can cause low product yields and operational problems. The problem of stickiness has been related to low glass transition temperature (Tg) values (Bhandari & Howes, 1999). Tg is the temperature at which products in an amor-phous state transition from a glassy to a rubbery state, or vice versa (Roos, 1995).For this reason, innovations have been made in the use of encapsulating materials as vehicles to facilitate drying du-ring the production of fruit powders (Bhandari et al., 1993). Several authors have highlighted their use to reduce the ad-hesiveness of the material and, in some cases, the deposition problems on the equipment walls. The selection of the mate-rial to be used as a vehicle and its concentration will depend primarily on the product being developed and the anti-caking capacity of the vehicle (Kenyon, 1995).Viscosity and soluble solids content are requirements in the preparation of the mixture to be dried, as these will afect the efciency of the drying process and the characteristics of the fnal product. Proper viscosity of the solution and a high total solids content are critical factors for process yield. Low viscosity allows for better fow of the mixture in the spray system, while a high concentration of total solids increases yield (López et al., 2009). Total solids must be increased to achieve a good yield in the dry product, being careful not to excessively increase the viscosity of the mixture that will be subjected to spray drying (Reineccius, 2006). Materials used in spray drying Diferent materials can be used as encapsulants. The ideal encapsulant should form coatings, have emulsifying proper-ties, be biodegradable, resistant to the gastrointestinal tract, present low viscosity with a high solids content, low hygros-copicity, and low cost (Barros & Stringheta, 2006). Further- more, they should not impart aroma or favor (Phisut, 2012), although they may enhance some sensory properties (Jittra et al., 2009) and should not react with or degrade the active in-gredient during processing and storage (Barbosa-Cánovas et al., 2005; Ghosh, 2006). Among them are hydrocolloids such as starch and maltodextrin with various dextrose equivalen-ce (DE) values, gum arabic, and some proteins (Shahidi & Han, 1993; Young et al., 1993) such as gelatin, casein, whey, soy, and wheat (Parra, 2011). Other possible encapsulating materials include inulin (Stevens et al., 2001) and chitosan (Ribeiro et al., 1999).The use of high molecular weight compounds before spray drying is very common as an option to raise the glass tran-sition temperature (Tg) of the dry product (Phisut, 2012). Maltodextrin is a good solution in terms of cost and efec - tiveness; it is a polysaccharide obtained by the partial acid hydrolysis of starch from corn, and potatoes, among others, and is classifed according to its dextrose equivalence. It is
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 28 soluble in water, has low viscosity, is tasteless, odorless, and forms colorless solutions (Bakowska-Barczak & Kolodzie- jczyk, 2011), allowing for the production of free-fowing powders without masking the original favor, which makes them extensively used in the food industry (García et al., 2004). Moreover, they are especially useful due to their high solubility in aqueous solutions and high glass transition tem-perature values as a result of their high molecular weight (Kenyon, 1995). Maltodextrins with a dextrose equivalence of 10 to 20 are widely used in the microencapsulation of an-thocyanins (Ersus & Yurdagel, 2007).Similarly, maltodextrins help reduce problems of adhe-sion and agglomeration during storage, improving product stability (Silva et al., 2006). Several studies have demonstra- ted the infuence of maltodextrin concentration on moisture content. Fazaeli et al. (2012) reported a decrease in moisture during the drying of black mulberry juice (Morus nigra) with increasing maltodextrin content (8, 12, and 16%); this could be due to additional concentrations of the encapsulant resul-ting in an increase in feed solids and a reduction in moisture. Other authors have reached similar conclusions (Mishra et al., 2014). Modifed starch by the addition of lipophilic compounds to increase emulsifying stability is another commonly used agent (Arburto et al., 1998). It can form small droplet-like particles (Shahidi & Han, 1993). Gum Arabic is one of the most important encapsulants used for colorants and favo - rings (Beristain et al., 2001); its use is conditioned by emul -sion stability and good retention. In the production of pow-ders from pigment extracts, it can be used in combination with other encapsulants (Barros & Stringetha, 2006). Arteaga & Arteaga (2016) evaluated the efect of a mixtu - re of gum arabic, maltodextrin, and modifed starch on the antioxidant activity, rehydration capacity, and anthocyanin content in microencapsulated blueberry powder. They ob- served that the combination of microencapsulants infuenced the antioxidant capacity and anthocyanin content, although it did not afect the rehydration capacity of the powder. Anthocyanins as natural colorants Various studies have demonstrated the coloring ability of anthocyanins against several matrices. Ramírez et al. (2006) obtained a natural food colorant from Castilla blackberry (Rubus glaucus Benth) to evaluate its efectiveness in dairy products compared to the synthetic colorant Erythrosine (E-127). In another study, Ramírez et al. (2007) reported that this colorant was efective, relatively stable, and maintained the naturalness of the products to which it was applied.On the other hand, Cevallos-Casals & Cisneros-Zeballos (2004) noted that despite the advantages that anthocyanins ofer as potential substitutes for artifcial colorants, their in -corporation into food matrices or pharmaceutical and cos-metic products is limited due to their low stability during processing and storage.Cano (2011) obtained three natural colorants from bilberry ( Vaccinium myrtillus L.), Castilla blackberry ( Rubus glau-cus ), and tree tomato ( S. betaceum Cav.) for the partial or total replacement of curing salts in commercial sausages. Various authors have microencapsulated anthocyanins from diferent matrices using maltodextrin as the encapsulating agent: blackcurrant (Bakowska-Barczak & Kolodziejczyk, 2011); black carrot (Ersus & Yurdagel, 2007); myrtle (Fang & Bhandari, 2011); açaí (Tonon et al., 2008; Tonon et al., 2010); grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) (Burin et al., 2011), among others.In the microencapsulation of anthocyanins extracted from eggplant ( Solanum melongena L.), it was observed that the best spray drying conditions for anthocyanin retention were achieved using an inlet air temperature of 180 ºC and a so-lids concentration in the feed of 30%. Maltodextrin was used as the encapsulating agent (Arrazola et al., 2014). They also evaluated the stability of the powdered colorant in isotonic beverages and Aloe vera-based drinks, concluding that sto- rage temperature infuenced the stability of anthocyanins and parameters such as color. The isotonic beverages and Aloe vera drinks with maltodextrin, stored at 4 °C, showed the highest retention of anthocyanins (54% and 77.5%, respec-tively).In another study, a natural powder colorant was obtained from fg peel ( Ficus carica L.). The aqueous extracts of fg anthocyanins were spray dried, using maltodextrin as the en-capsulating agent, at an inlet air temperature of 180 ± 2 ºC and three outlet air temperatures (80 ± 2 ºC; 90 ± 2 ºC; and 92 ± 4 ºC). For drying, the fnal mixture was standardized to 20% total solids, with the addition of maltodextrin at a rate of 16.25 g/100 mL of extract. The best conditions for obtai-ning the powdered colorant were at an inlet air temperature of 180 ºC and an outlet temperature of 92 ºC (Aguilera-Otíz et al., 2012).Functional ingredients were obtained from blackberry (Rubus glaucus Benth) and bilberry ( Vaccinium foribundum Kunth) pulp through microencapsulation. Several treatments were carried out with temperatures ranging from 130 to 150 ºC and combinations of gum arabic (GA) and maltodextrin (MD). The highest polyphenol and anthocyanin contents were achieved at 130 ºC with 10 g GA/90 g MD for the dr-ying of blackberry pulp and 150 ºC with 10 g GA/90 g MD for bilberry pulp. The highest percentages of anthocyanins reported for blackberry and bilberry powders were 75.31% and 65.56%, respectively (Abadiano, 2015).Herazo (2013) obtained a natural powder colorant from anthocyanins extracted from eggplant ( S. melongena ). Spray
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 29 drying was carried out with maltodextrin as the encapsula-ting agent. It was observed that temperature and percentage of maltodextrin infuenced most physical and chemical pro -perties of the powder. The colorant with 30% maltodextrin dried at 180 °C, with an efciency of 98%, showed lower moisture content (3.43%) and a w (0.26), and higher solubility (93.61%). Santhalakshmy et al. (2015) studied the efect of inlet air temperature on the physical and chemical properties of a powder obtained from S. cumini juice. The variations were within a range of 140 to 160 °C. The outlet temperature para-meters (80 °C), as well as the concentration of maltodextrin (25%), remained constant in the study. The best inlet tempe-rature for powder production was 150 °C, yielding optimal moisture content and a w for the powder.Natural colorants were prepared from blueberry, grape jui-ce, and hibiscus ( Hibiscus sabdarifa L.). The extraction of anthocyanins was performed in 95% ethanol and 0.01% ci-tric acid, with the addition of Morrex 1918 (10-13 DE) until obtaining 30% total solids. The most appropriate outlet air temperature for obtaining the anthocyanin concentrate with minimal degradation was 90 ºC (Main et al., 1978).From black carrots, Ersus & Yurdagel (2007) extracted an- thocyanins in acidifed ethanol. The extract was dried using maltodextrin Stardri 10 (10 DE), Glucodry 210 (20-23 DE), and MDX 29 (28-31 DE) as transport and encapsulating agents. Three combinations of inlet and outlet air temperatu-res were evaluated, maintaining a constant total solids per-centage of 20%. The highest inlet and outlet air temperatures caused the greatest losses of anthocyanins during the drying process. The powder obtained at a drying temperature of 160 ºC using Glucodry 210 (20-23 DE) showed the highest anthocyanin content. This powder was characterized based on its anthocyanin content, antioxidant capacity, chromatic coordinates, hygroscopicity, and dry matter.On the other hand, Tonon et al. (2009) reported that 10 DE maltodextrin was the encapsulant that showed the best pro-tection and highest antioxidant activity of acai anthocyanins ( Euterpe oleracea Mart.), compared to 20 DE maltodextrin, gum arabic, and cassava starch. The samples were stored at 25 and 35 ºC and a w values of 0.328 and 0.529; it was ob -served that with the increase of temperature and a w , their an-tioxidant activity decreased.Silva et al. (2013) evaluated the simultaneous optimization of diferent encapsulating agents and temperatures to obtain a powdered colorant from jaboticaba ( Myrciaria jabotica-ba ). They used as encapsulating agents 30% maltodextrin as control, 25% gum arabic + 5% maltodextrin, and 25% CapsulTM + 5% maltodextrin. The inlet air temperatures were 140, 160, and 180 ºC. The retention of anthocyanins, moisture content, total solids, hygroscopicity, total color di- ference, and antioxidant activity were the response varia -bles. The variant that showed the highest statistical conve-nience corresponded to the mixture of 30% maltodextrin at 180 ºC; however, scanning electron microscopy showed that the combination of maltodextrin and gum arabic allowed the formation of more homogeneous particles.A similar study was conducted by Arteaga & Arteaga (2016), who evaluated the efect of the mixture of gum ara - bic, maltodextrin, and modifed starch on the antioxidant capacity, rehydration capacity, and anthocyanin content of a blueberry powder. The drying was carried out at an inlet air temperature of 120 ºC. The highest values of antioxidant capacity and anthocyanin content were obtained for the com- bination of 11.89% maltodextrin, 12.13% modifed starch, and 75.98% gum arabic. However, they did not infuence the rehydration capacity. Conclusions Anthocyanins are an attractive option as natural colorants in the food industry due to their ability to provide vibrant colors and their antioxidant properties, which respond to the growing demand for healthier and safer products. Never-theless, their stability remains a challenge, as factors such as exposure to light, pH variations, and high temperatures can afect their efectiveness and durability in food products. Spray drying emerges as a promising technique to enhance the stability of anthocyanins, extending their shelf life and facilitating their integration into various food matrices. The reviewed studies confrm that this process not only preser -ves the bioactive properties of anthocyanins but also enables their application in the development of new products with natural colorants, contributing to innovation in this feld. Despite these advances, further research is needed to optimi-ze processing conditions to ensure greater stability and func-tionality of anthocyanins in industrial applications. References Abadiano, L. (2015). Desarrollo de un ingrediente funcio-nal a partir de pulpa de mora (Rubus glaucus Benth) y pulpa de mortiño (Vaccinium foribundum Kunth), me -diante la microencapsulación de compuestos fenólicos . Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito, Ecuador.Adhikari, B., Howes, T., Bhandari, B. & Troung, V. (2004). Efect of addition of maltodextrin on drying kinetics and stickiness of sugar and acid-rich foods during convecti-ve drying: experiments and modeling. Journal of Food Engineering , 62(1), 53-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 30 S0260-8774(03)00171-7Aguilera-Otíz, M., Reza-Vargas, M. del C., Chew-Madina-veita, R. G. & Meza-Velázquez, J.A. (2011). Propieda-des funcionales de las antocianinas. Biotecnia , 13(2), 16-22. https://doi.org/10.18633/bt.v13i2.81Amchova, P., Kotolova, H. & Ruda-Kucerova, J. (2015). Health safety issues of synthetic food colorants. Regu-latory Toxicology and Pharmacology , (73), 914-922. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070466Arburto, L., Tavares, D. & Martucci, E. (1998). Microencap-sulacão de óleo essencial de laranja. Ciência e Tecno-logia de Alimentos , 18, 45-48. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-20611998000100010Arrazola, G., Herazo, I. & Alvis, A. (2014). Microencapsu-lación de antocianinas de berenjena ( Solanum melon-gena L.) mediante secado por aspersión y evaluación de la estabilidad de su color y capacidad antioxidante. Información Tecnológica , 25(3), 31-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-07642014000300006Arteaga, A. & Arteaga, H. (2016). Optimización de la capa-cidad antioxidante, contenido de antocianinas y capaci-dad de rehidratación en polvo de arándano ( Vaccinium corymbosum ) microencapsulado con mezclas de hidro-coloides. Scientia Agropecuaria , 7(3), 191-200. http://dx.doi.org/10.17268/sci.agropecu.2016.03.05Astiasarán, A., Las Heras, A., Ariño, P. & Martínez, H. (2003). Alimentos y nutrición en la práctica sanitaria . Madrid, España: Díaz de Santos.Badui, S. (2006). Química de los Alimentos . México, Edito-rial: Pearson Educación.Bahnasawy, A.H., Okasha, A.E. & Gonbeej, E.E. (2010). Performance evaluation of a laboratory scale spray dr-yer. Process Engineering , 27(1), 326-346. http://dx.doi.org/10.21608/mjae.2010.107172Bakowska-Barczak, A.M. & Kolodziejczyk, P.P. (2011). Black currant polyphenols: their storage stability and microencapsulation. Industrial Crops and Products , 34(2), 1301-1309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ind-crop.2010.10.002Barbosa-Cánovas, G., Ortega-Rivas, E., Juliano, P. & Yan, H. (2005). Food powders: physical properties, proces-sing and functionality. New York, EE.UU, Editorial: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publisher.Barros, F.A.R. & Stringheta, P.C. (2006). Microencapsula-mento de antocianinas uma alternativa para o aumen-to de sua aplicabilidade como ingrediente alimentício. Biotecnologia Ciência e Desenvolvimento, 36, 18-24.Beristain, C.I., García, H.S. & Vernon-Carter, E.J. (2001). Spray-dried encapsulation of cardamom ( Elettaria car-damomum ) essential oil with mesquite ( Prosopis juli- fora ) gum. LWT - Food Science and Technology , 34(6), 398-401. https://doi.org/10.1006/fstl.2001.0779Bhandari, B. R., Patel, K. C. & Chen, X. D. (2008). Spray drying of food materials - process and product characte-ristics. Drying Technologies in Food Processing. Edited by Chen, X. D., y Mujumdar, A. S. West Sussex, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.113-157.Bhandari, B., Senoussi, A., Dumoulin, E. & Lebert, A. (1993). Spray drying of concentrated fruit juices. Drying Technology , 11(5), 1081-1092. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373939308916884Bhandari, B. & Howes, T. (1999). Implication of glass transition for the drying and stability of dried foods. Journal of Food Engineering , 40, 71-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(99)00039-4Boss, E. (2004). Modelagem e otimização do processo de lioflização: aplicação para leite desnatado e café so -lúvel . Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brasil.Brennan, J. (2008). Manual del procesado de los alimentos . Zaragoza, España: Editorial Acribia S.A.Bridgers, E., Chinn, M. & Truong, V. (2010). Extraction of anthocyanins from industrial purple-feshed sweetpota -toes and enzymatic hydrolysis of residues for fermen-table sugars. Industrial. Crops and Products , 32, 613-620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.07.020Brouillard, R. (1982). Chemical structure of anthocyanins. In Anthocyanins as Food Colors . New York, EE.UU: Academic Press.Burin, V., Rossa, P., Ferreira-Lima, N., Hillmann, M. & Boirdignon-Luiz, M. (2011). Anthocyanins: optimiza-tion of extraction from Cabernet Sauvignon grapes, mi-crocapsulation and stability in soft drink . International Journal of Food Science and Technology , 46, 186-193. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2010.02486.xCai, Y. Z. & Corke, H. (2000). Production and properties of spray-dried amaranthus betacyanin pigments. Jour-nal of Food Science , 65(6), 1248-1252. https://doi.or-g/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2000.tb10273.xCano, A. (2011). Extracción y uso de tres pigmentos natu-rales a partir de tomate de árbol (Solanum betaceum Cav.), mortiño (Vaccinium myttillus L.) y mora de casti -lla (Rubus glaucus) como alternativa colorante natural para alimentos . Escuela Politécnica del Ejército, San-golquí, Ecuador.Cano-Chauca, M., Stringheta, P. C., Ramos, A. M. & Cal-Vi- dal, J. (2005). Efect of the carriers on the microstruc -ture of mango powder spray drying and its functional characterization. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies , 6(4), 420-428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2005.05.003Castañeda, A., Pacheco, M., Páez, M., Rodríguez, J. & Ga-lán, C. (2009). Chemical studies of anthocyanins: A review. Food Chemistry , 113, 859-871. https://doi.or-g/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.001
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 31 Castillo, Y. (2016). Optimización del proceso de extracción hidroalcohólica de antocianinas a partir de pulpa de cerezo negro (Syzygium cumini) (Tesis de pregrado). Universidad de La Habana, La Habana, Cuba.Cevallos-Casals, A. & Cisneros-Zevallos, L. (2004). Stabi-lity of anthocyanins-based aqueous extracts of Andean purple corn and red-feshed sweet potato compared to synthetic and natural colorants. Food Chemistry , 86, 69-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.08.011Chaitanya, L.G. (2014). Food coloring: the natural way . Re-search Journal of Chemical Sciences , 4(2), 87-96.Chhun, S. (2006). Improving the stability of a hem-based food colorant by means of spray-drying encapsulation. (Tesis de pregrado). Universidad de Girona, Cataluña, España.Clydesdale, F.M. (1993). Color as a factor in food choice. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition , 33(1), 83-101. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408399309527614Cubero, N., Monferrer, A. & Villalta, J. (2002). Aditivos ali-mentarios. Mundi-Prensa Libros, Madrid, España.De Brito, E., Pessanha, N., Alves, E., Carkeet, C. & Cle-vidence, B. (2007). Anthocyanins present in selected tropical fruits: acerola, jambolao, jussara, and guaji-ru. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , (55), 9389-9394. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0715020Devi, S., Saravanakumar, M. & Mohandas, S. (2012). The efects of temperature and pH on stability of anthocya -nins from red sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor ) bran. African Journal of Food Science , 6, 567-573.Devia, J. & Saldarriaga, D. F. (2005). Proceso para obtener colorante a partir de la semilla de aguacate. Revista Universidad EAFIT , 41(137), 36-43.Downham, A. & Collins, P. (2000). Colouring our foods in the last and next millennium: A review of colours used in our food and drink. International Journal of Food Science and Technology , 35, 5-22. https://doi.or-g/10.1046/j.1365-2621.2000.00373.xDubernet, C. & Benoit, J.P. (1986). The microencapsulation: Ses techniques et ses applications en biologie. L´actua- lité Chimique , 19-28.Eder, R. (1996). Handbook of Food Analysis. Pigments: an -thocyanins . New York, EE.UU.: L. M. Nollet. Enaru, B., Drețcanu, G., Pop, T.D., Stǎnilǎ. A. & Diaconea - sa, Z. (2021). Anthocyanins: Factors Afecting Their Stability and Degradation. Antioxidants (Basel) , 10 (12), 1967. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10121967Ersus, S. & Yurdagel, U. (2007). Microencapsulation of an-thocyanin pigments of black carrot ( Daucus carota L.) by spray drier. Journal of Food Engineering , 80, 805-812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.07.009Escribano-Bailón, M., Santos, C. & Rivas-Gonzalo, J. (2004). Anthocyanins in cereals. Journal of Chroma-tography A , 1054, 129-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2004.08.152 Falcão, L. (2003 ). Estabilidade de antocianinas extraídas de uvas Cabernet Sauvignon (Vitis vinifera L.) emsolução tampão, bebida isotônica e iogurte (Tesis de. Maestría). Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Sata Catarina, Brasil.Falcão, L., Falcão, A., Gris, E. & Bordignon, M. (2008). Spectrophotometric study of the stability of anthocya-nins from Cabernet Sauvignon grape skins in a model system. Brazilian. J. Food Technol. , 11(1), 63-69. Fang, Z. & Bhandari, B. (2011). Efect of spray drying and storage on the stability of bayberry polyphenols . Food Chemistry , 129, 1139-1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.05.093Fazaeli, M., Emam-Djomeh, Z., Ashtari, A. & Omid, M. (2012). Prediction of the physicochemical properties of spray-dried black mulberry ( Morus nigra ) juice using artifcial neutral networks. Food and Bioprocess Tech-nology , 90, 667-675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-011-0648-xFennema, O. (1995). Química de los alimentos. Zaragoza, España: Editorial Acribia.Fennema, O. (2000). Química de los alimentos. Zaragoza, España: Editorial Acribia.Ferreira, E., Stringheta, C. & Cano-Chauca M. (2007). Sta-bility of anthocyanin in spinach vine (Basella rubra) fruits. Ciencia e Investigación Agraria , 34: 115-120. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-16202007000200004Fleschhut, J., Kratzer, F., Rechkemmer, G. & Kulling, S. (2006). Stability and biotransformation of various die-tary anthocyanins in vitro. European Journal of Nutri-tion , (45), 7-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-005-0557-8Francis, F. (1995). Concentrates as colorants. The World of Ingredients , (3), 29-31.García, G., González, M., Ochoa, M. & Medrano, Y. (2004). Microencapsulación del jugo de cebada ver-de mediante secado por aspersión. Revista Ciencia y Tecnología Alimentaria , 4(4), 262-266. https://doi.org/10.1080/11358120409487769Garzón, G. (2008). Las antocianinas como colorantes natu-rales y compuestos bioactivos: revisión. Acta Biológica Colombiana , 13(3), 27-36.Garzón, G. & Wrolstad, R. (2001). The Stability of Pelar-gonidin-based Anthocyanins at Varying Water Activity. Food Chemistry , (75), 185-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00196-0Garzón, G. & Wrolstad, R. (2002). Comparison of the Stabi-lity of Pelargonidin-based Anthocyanins in Strawberry Juice and Concentrate. Journal of Food Science , 4 (67), 1288-1299. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb10277.xGhosh, S. (2006). Functional coatings and microencapsula-tion a general perspective . Weinheim: Wiley-vchVerla-ggmbh & Co. Kgaa.
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 32 Gil, A. (2010). Tratado de nutrición. Madrid, España: Edito-rial: Médica Panamericana.Giusti, M. & Wrolstad, R. (2003). Acylated anthocyanin from edible sources and their applications in food sys-tems. Biochemical Engineering Journal , 14, 217-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1369-703X(02)00221-8Hutchings, J. (1999). Food Color and Appearance . Gaither-sburg, EE.UU., Editorial: Aspen.Ibáñez, C., Torre, P. & Irigoyen, A. (2003). Aditivos Alimen-tarios. Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. , 6, 420-428.Jittra, S., Ningsanond, S. & Steve, W. (2009). Extraction and physicochemical characterisation of polysacchari-de gum from Yanang ( Tiliacora triandra ) leaves. Food Chemistry , 114, 1301-1307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.11.008 Kenyon, M. (1995). Modifed starch, maltodextrin, and corn syrup solids as wall materials for food encapsulation. Encapsulation Control Release of Food Ingredients , 7, 43-50. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-1995-0590.ch004Kirca, A., Özkan, M. & Cemeroglu, B. (2006). Stability of black carrot anthocyanins in various fruit juices and nectars. Food Chemistry , 97, 598-605. https://doi.or-g/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.036Kobylewski, S. & Jacobson, M.F. (2010). Food dyes: A rain-bow of risks. Center for Science in the Public Interest.Konczak, I. & Zhang, W. (2004). Anthocyanins – more than nature’s colours. Journal of Biomedicine and Bio-technology , 5(1), 239-240. 1 https://doi.org/0.1155/S1110724304407013Kong, J., Chia, L., Goh, N., Chia, R. & Brouillard, R. (2003). Analysis and biological activities of anthocya-nins. Phytochem. , 64, 923-933. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(03)00438-2Krishnaiah, D., Nithyanandam, R. & Sarbatly, R. (2014). A critical review on the spray drying of fruit extract: Efect of additives on physicochemical properties. Cri-tical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition , 54(4), 444-473. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.587038Lakshmi, C. (2014). Food Coloring: The Natural Way. Re-search. Journal of Chemical Sciences , 4(2), 87-96.Laleh, G., Frydoonfar, H., Heidary, R., Jameel, R. & Zare, S. (2006). The efect of light, temperature, pH and species on stability of anthocyanin pigments in four berberis species. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition , 5, 90-92. Lepidot, T., Harel, S., Akiri, B., Granit, R. & Kaner J. (1999). pH dependent forms of red wine anthocyanins as an-tioxidants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemis-try , 47, 67. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf980704g Liapis, A. & Lithefeld, R. (1979). Optimal control of a freeze dryer. Chemical Engineering Science , 37(1), 975-981. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(79)85009-5 Linden, G., y Lorient (1996). Bioquímica Agroindustrial . Zaragoza, España: Editorial Acribia, S.A.Liu, X.D., Atarashi, T., Furuta, T., Yoshii, H., Aishima, S. & Ohkawara, M. (2001). Microencapsulation of emul- sifed hydrophobic favours by spray drying. Drying Technology , 19, 1361-1374. https://doi.org/10.1081/DRT-100105293Lock, O. (1997). Antocianinas. Colorantes alimentarios . Lima, Perú: Editorial: PUCP.López, B., Carvajal, L. & Millan, L. (2009). Establecimiento de condiciones de la mezcla de pulpa de banano para someter ha secado por aspersión. Vitae , 16(3), 278-296.Madhava, N.M. & Sowbhagya, H.B. (2012). Technological advances in food colors. Chemical Industry Digest , 79-88.Main, J.H., Clydesdale, F.M. & Francis, F.J. (1978). Spray drying anthocyanin concentrates for use as food colo-rants. Journal of Food Science , 43, 1693-1697. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1978.tb07390.xMartins, N., Lobo, R., Morales, P., Barros, L. & Ferreira, I. (2016). Food colorants: Challenges, opportunities and current desires of agroindustries to ensure consu-mer expectations and regulatory practices. Trends in Food Science & Technology , (52), 1-15. https://doi.or-g/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.03.009Masone, D. & Chanforan. C. (2015). Study on the interac- tion of artifcial and natural food colorants with human serum albumin: A computational point of view. Compu-tational Biology and Chemistry , (56), 152-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2015.04.006 Mishra, P., Mishra, S. & Mahanta, C. (2014). Efect of maltodextrin concentration and inlet temperature du-ring spray drying on physicochemical and antioxidant properties of amla ( Emblica ofcinalis ) juice powder . Food and Bioproducts Processing , 92, 252-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2013.08.003Moldovan, B., David, L., Chisbora, C. & Cimpoiu, C. (2012). Degradation kinetics of anthocyanins from Eu-ropean cranberry bush ( Viburnum opulus L.) fruit ex- tracts. Efects of temperature, pH and storage solvent. Molecules , (17), 11655-11666. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules171011655Mortensen, A. (2006). Carotenoids and other pigments as natural colorants. Pure and Applied Chemistry , 78(8), 1477-1491. https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200678081477 Mosquera, L.H. (2010). Infuencia de la humedad y de la adi -ción de solutos (maltodextrina o goma arábiga) en las propiedades fsicoquímicas de borojó y fresa en polvo (Tesis doctoral). Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, España.NC 277 (2008). Aditivos alimentarios. Regulaciones sanita-ras. La Habana: ONN.
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 33 Olaya, C., Castaño, M. & Garzón, G. (2009). Stability of anthocyanins from Rubus glaucus Benth and Solanum betaceum Cav.dark-red strain as afected by temperatu -re, storage time and water activity. Acta Biológica Co-lombiana , 14(3), 141-156.Owusu, A. (2005). Introduction to Food Chemistry . EE.UU, Editorial: CRC Press.Parra, V. (2004). Estudio comparativo en el uso de colorantes naturales y sintéticos en alimentos, desde el punto de vista funcional y toxicológico (Tesis de diploma). Uni-versidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.Pereira, C., Ramos, P., Zapata, C., Tessaro, I. & Ferrei-ra, L. (2010). Degradation kinetics of anthocyanin in blueberry juice during thermal treatment. Food Science , 75, 173-176. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2009.01479.xPhisut, N. (2012). Spray drying technique of fruit juice pow- der: some factors infuencing the properties of product. International Food Research Journal , 19(4), 1297-1306.Poei-Langston, M. & Wrolstad, R. (1981). Color Degrada-tion in an Ascorbic Acid- Anthocyanin-Flavanol Model System. Journal of Food Science , 4(46), 1218-1222. ht-tps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1981.tb03026.xPrado, S., Hernández, M., Mogica, M., Moreno, M. & Pre-ciado, F. (2012). Incidencia de hipersensibilidad a colo- rantes artifciales de los alimentos en un grupo de estu -diantes de medicina. Pediatría de México , 14, 172-175.Ramírez, M., Neira, A. & Johana, L. (2007). Actividad an-timicrobiana, conservante y obtención de un colorante natural a partir de plantas de la región de Boyaca. Scien-tia et Technica , 13(33), 415-417.Ramírez, M., Yadira, N. & Johana, L. (2006). Obtención de un colorante natural alimentario de mora de Castilla ( Rubus glaucus benth). Ciencia en Desarrollo , 2(2), 115-130.Rebolledo, F. (2007). Determinación del potencial de colora-ción en alimentos de un concentrado de jugo de cranbe-rry ( Vaccinium macrocarpon ) obtenido por nanofltra -ción (Tesis de pregrado). Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.Rein, M.J. (2005). Copigmentation reactions and color sta-bility of berry anthocyanins (disertación). EKT series 1331. University of Helsinki, Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, 88+34 pp.Reineccius, G. (2006). Flavor Chemistry and Technology . Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Ribeiro, A., Neufeld, R., Arnaud, P. & Chaumeil, J. (1999). Microencapsulation of lipophilic drugs in chitosan-coa-ted alginate microspheres. International Journal of Pharmaceutics , 187, 115-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-5173(99)00173-8 Rodríguez, J. (1986). Tecnología de la Lioflización de Pro -ductos Vegetales (Tesis de diploma). Universidad Na-cional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Perú.Roos, Y. (1995). Phase transitions in foods . New York, EE.UU., Editorial: Academic Press.Santhalakshmy, S., John, S., Francis, S. & Sabeena, M. (2015). Efect of inlet temperature on physicochemical properties of spray-dried jamun fruit juice powder. Pow-der Technology , 274, 37-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2015.01.016Schmitz-Schug, I., Gianfrancesco, A., Kulozik, U. & Foerst, P. (2013). Physical state, molecular mobility and che-mical stability of powdered dairy formulations. Food Research International , 53, 268-277. https://doi.or-g/10.1016/j.foodres.2013.05.003Shahidi, F. & Han, X.Q. (1993). Encapsulation of food ingredients. Critical Reviews in Food Scien-ce and Nutrition , 33(6), 501-547. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408399309527645Silva, M., Sobral, P. & Kieckbusch, T. (2006). State dia-grams of freeze-dried camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia (HBK) Mc Vaugh) pulp with and without maltodextrin addition. Journal of Food Engineering , 77(3), 426-432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.07.009 Silva, P., Stringheta, P., Teóflo, R. & Nolasco, I. (2013). Parameter optimization for spray-drying microencap-sulation of jaboticaba (Myrciaria jaboticaba) peel ex-tracts using simultaneous analysis of responses. Jour-nal of Food Engineering , 117, 538-544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.08.039Soriano-Santos, J., Franco-Zavaleta, M., Pelayo-Zaldívar, C., Armella-Villalpando, M., Yánez-López, M. & Gue-rrero-Legarreta, I. (2007). Caracterización parcial del pigmento rojo del fruto de la jiotilla ( Escontria chio-tilla ). Revista Mexicana De Ingeniería Química , 6(1), 19-25.Sousa, E., Pessanha, M., Alves, R., Colleen, C., Cleviden-ce, Y. & Novotny, J. (2005). Anthocyanins present in selected tropical fruits: acerola, jambolão, jussara, and guajiru. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry , (53), 2589-2599. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0715020Stevens, C., Meriggi, A. & Booten, K. (2001) Chemical mo- difcation of inulin, a valuable renewable resource, and its industrial applications. Biomacromolecules , 2, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm005642tStintzing, F., Stintzing, A., Carle, R., Frei, B. & Wrolstad, R. (2002). Color and Antioxidant Properties of Cyani-din-based Anthocyanin Pigments. Journal of Agricul-tural and Food Chemistry , (50), 6172-81. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0204811
J. Food Sci. Gastron . (January - June 2023) 1(1): 22-34 34 Tonon V., Brabet, C., Pallet, D., Brat, P. & Hubinger, D. (2009). Physicochemical and morphological charac- terization of açai powder produced with diferent ca -rrier agents. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 44, 1950-1958. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2009.02012.x Tonon, R., Brabet, C. & Hubinger, M. (2008). Infuence of process conditions on the physicochemical properties of acai ( Euterpe oleraceae Mart.) powder produced by spray drying. Journal of Food Engineering , 88, 411-418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2008.02.029Tonon, R., Brabet, C. & Hubinger, M. (2010). Anthocyanin stability and antioxidant activity of spray-dried açai ( Euterpe oleracea Mart.) juice produced with diferent carrier agents. Food Research International , 43(3), 907-914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2009.12.013Valle, P. (2000). Toxicologia de los alimentos. Mexico, D. F.: Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Centro de salud ambiental.Vásquez, A. (2012). Extracción, toxicidad y caracterización morfológica del cerezo negro, como colorante natural para la aplicación de uso industrial y su importancia médica. Universidad del Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador.Vidotti, E., Costa, W. & Oliveira, C. (2006). Development of a green chromatographic method for determination of colorants in food samples. Talanta , 3(68), 516-521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2005.01.059Wang, W. & Xu, S. (2007). Degradation kinetics of antho-cyanins in blackberry juice and concentrate. Journal of Food Engineering , 82, 271-275. https://doi.or-g/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.01.018Winkel-Shirley, B. (2001). Flavonoids Biosynthesis. A co-lorful Model for Genetics, Biochemistry, Cell Biology and Biotechnology. Plant Physiology , 126, 485-493. ht-tps://doi.org/10.1104/pp.126.2.485Young, S., Sarada, X. & Rosenberg, M. (1993). Microen-capsulating properties of whey proteins. 1. Microen-capsulation of anhydrous milk fat. Journal of Dairy Science , 76, 2868-2877. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(93)77625-0Zapata, L. (2014). Obtención de extracto de antocianinas a partir de arándanos para ser utilizado como antioxidan-te y colorante en la industria alimentaria (Tesis de pre-grado). Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, España. Conficts of interest The authors declare that they have no conficts of interest. Author contributions Daliannis Rodríguez: Conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, supervision, validation, visualization, drafting the original manuscript and writing, review, and editing. Data availability statement Not applicable. Statement on the use of AI The authors acknowledge the use of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies to improve the readability and cla-rity of the article. Disclaimer/Editor’s note The statements, opinions, and data contained in all publi-cations are solely those of the individual authors and contri-butors and not of Journal of Food Science and Gastronomy.Journal of Food Science and Gastronomy and/or the edi-tors disclaim any responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions, or products mentioned in the content.