Sanitary and nutritional quality of Tonou and Tchotou, traditionalmustards produced in northern Togo, West Africa
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21864368Keywords:
traditional fermented condiments, alkaline fermentation, nutritional composition, microbiological safetyAbstract
The traditional production of Tonou and Tchotou mustard in the Kara and Savannah regions of Togo remains artisanal, poorly standardized, and increasingly threatened by industrial seasoning cubes. This study evaluated production practices, physicochemical composition, and microbiological quality through surveys and laboratory analyses. The activity is carried out mainly by women and represents an important source of income, although training in good manufacturing practices is limited. Four types of mustard were identified, with the néré and soybean blend standing out for its mineral content. However, the samples showed high counts of aerobic microorganisms, yeasts, and molds, exceeding established limits, although Salmonella spp. was not detected. It was concluded that, despite their nutritional value, the microbiological quality of these products is unsatisfactory. Therefore, producers should receive training, hygienic conditions should be improved, and production processes should be standardized.
Downloads
References
Alphonse, L. (2026). Bioactive metabolites and probiotic microorganisms in traditional fermented condiments: Insights on prevention and treatment of cancer. Applied Food Research, 6(1), Article 101614. https://doi.or-g/10.1016/j.afres.2025.101614
AOAC. (1980). Official methods of analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
AOAC. (2019). Official methods of analysis of AOAC International (21st ed., Vol. 1). AOAC International.
Azokpota, P., Hounhouigan, D. J., & Nago, M. C. (2006). Microbiological and chemical changes during the fermentation of African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) to produce afitin, iru and sonru, three traditional condiments produced in Benin. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 107(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2005.10.026
Compaoré, C. S., Tapsoba, F. W., Parkouda, C., Tamboura, D., Traoré, E. M. A., Diawara, B., ... & Sawadogo-Lingani, H. (2020). Development of starter cultures carrier for the production of high quality soumbala, a food condiment based on Parkia biglobosa seeds. African Journal of Biotechnology, 19(11), 820–828. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2020.17244
Djoudi, H., Locatelli, B., Pehou, C., Colloff, M. J., Elias, M., Gautier, D., ... & Zida, M. (2022). Trees as brokers in social networks: Cascades of rights and benefits from a Cultural Keystone Species. Ambio, 51(10), 2137–2154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-022-01733-z
European Commission. (2005). Commission Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 of 15 November 2005 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs. Official Journal of the European Union, 338, 1–26.
Fatima, G., Dzupina, A., Alhmadi, H. B., Magomedova, A., Siddiqui, Z., Mehdi, A., & Hadi, N. (2024). Magnesium matters: A comprehensive review of its vital role in health and diseases. Cureus, 16(10). https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.71392
Fatoumata, C., Soronikpoho, S., Souleymane, T., Kouakou, B., & Marcellin, D. K. (2016). Caractéristiques biochimiques et microbiologiques de moutardes africaines produites à base de graines fermentées de Parkia biglobosa et de Glycine max, vendues en Côte d’Ivoire. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v10i2.5
Guissou, A. W. D. B., Parkouda, C., Anaïs, C. K., Korotimi, T., Oboulbiga, E. B., & Savadogo, A. (2020). Fermentation effect on the nutrient and antinutrient composition of Senegalia macrostachya and Parkia biglobosa seeds: A comparative study. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 11(7). https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2020.117052
ISO 4833-1. (2014). Microbiology of the food chain—Horizontal method for the enumeration of microorganisms—Part 1: Colony count at 30 °C by the pour plate technique. International Organization for Standardization.
ISO 21527-2. (2008). Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs—Horizontal method for the enumeration of yeasts and moulds—Part 2: Colony count technique in products with water activity less than or equal to 0.95. International Organization for Standardization.
ISO 21528-2. (2004). Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs—Horizontal methods for the detection and enumeration of Enterobacteriaceae—Part 2: Colony-count method. International Organization for Standardization.
Kambire, O., Yao, K. M., Sika, A. E., Coulibaly, A., Boli, Z. B. I. A., & Koffi-Nevry, R. (2021). Microbiological and physicochemical characteristics of three types of “soumbara” from seeds of African locust bean in Korhogo markets, Côte d’Ivoire. International Journal of Food Science, 2021, Article 5572300. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5572300
Kosse, J. S., Yeung, A. C., Gil, A. I., & Miller, D. D. (2001). A rapid method for iron determination in fortified foods. Food Chemistry, 75(3), 371–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146%2801%2900215-1
Kouamé, K. A., Bouatenin, K. M. J. P., Coulibaly, W. H., & Marcellin, D. K. (2021). Biochemical and microbiological characterization of “Soumbara” from African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) seeds consumed in Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire). North African Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 5(11). https://doi.org/10.51745/najfnr.5.11.35-42
Laetitia, K. A. J., Severin, K. K. A., Joseph, K. N., Carine, A. E., Tia, G., & Sebastien, N. (2022). Production of highly nutritious enriched infant flours from a traditional ready-to-eat dish: The plantain Dockounou. Journal of Food Research, 11(3), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v11n3p1
Law, G. Y., Chong, L. C., & Tang, Y. Q. (2024). Antihypertensive effects of condiments prepared from fermented legumes: A review. International Food Research Journal, 31(1). https://doi.org/10.47836/ifrj.31.1.01
Maereka, E. K., Nchanji, E. B., Nyamolo, V., Cosmas, L. K., & Chataika, B. Y. (2023). Women’s visibility and bargaining power in the common bean value chain in Mozambique. CABI Agriculture and Bioscience, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43170-023-00197-9
Marcel, A. G., Théodore, A. K., Losséni, B., & Ernest, A. K. (2022). Manufacturing technique and nutritive value of Soumbara (Parkia biglobosa seeds) and dark seed of Korhogo (Côte d’Ivoire). Open Journal of Applied Sciences, 12(10). https://doi.org/10.4236/oja¬pps.2022.1210114
Musara, C., Aladejana, E. B., Mudyiwa, S. M., & Karavi¬na, C. (2020). Parkia biglobosa (Mimosaceae): Botany, uses, phytochemical properties and pharmacological potential. Journal of Pharmacy and Nutrition Sciences, 10(3), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.29169/1927-5951.2020.10.03.4
Obafemi, Y. D., Oranusi, S. U., Ajanaku, K. O., Akinduti, P. A., Leech, J., & Cotter, P. D. (2022). African fermented foods: Overview, emerging benefits, and novel approaches to microbiome profiling. npj Science of Food, 6 (1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-022-00130-w
Oladeji, O. A., Taiwo, K. A., Ogidi, C. O., & Faturoti, A. O. (2025). Production, nutritional benefits, limitations and strategies for enhancing the national value of fermented native condiments from selected legumes and wild seeds in Nigeria. Discover Food, 5, 142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-025-00409-3
Ouoba, L. I. I., Rechinger, K. B., Barkholt, V., Diawara, B., Traore, A. S., & Jakobsen, M. (2003). Degradation of proteins during the fermentation of African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) by strains of Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus pumilus for production of Soumbala. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 94(3). https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2003.01845.x
Owusu-Kwarteng, J., Agyei, D., Akabanda, F., Atuna, R. A., & Amagloh, F. K. (2022). Plant-based alkaline fermented foods as sustainable sources of nutrients and health-promoting bioactive compounds. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6, 885328. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.885328
Quisumbing, A., Heckert, J., Faas, S., Ramani, G., Raghu¬nathan, K., Malapit, H., ... & Seymour, G. (2021). Women’s empowerment and gender equality in agricultural value chains: Evidence from four countries in Asia and Africa. Food Security, 13(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01193-5
Rahman, M. S. (2020). Handbook of food preservation. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429091483
Souley, R. A., Diadié, H. O., Abdelkader, A. S., Yacoubou, B., & Balla, A. (2020). Caractérisation biochimique et microbiologique de Soumbala de néré (Parkia biglobosa) et d’oseille de Guinée (Hibiscus sabdariffa) produits au Niger. European Scientific Journal, 16(3). https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2020.v16n3p224
Yami, M., Abioye, O., Sore, S. Z., Mugisho, A., & Abdou-Laye, T. (2024). Factors influencing gender and youth integration in agricultural research and innovation in Africa. CABI Agriculture and Bioscience, 5(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43170-024-00215-4
Yérobessor, D., Iliassou, M., Marius, K. S., Jerry, O. U., Lewis, I. E., Mamoudou, H. D., & Alfred, S. T. (2020). Production technique, safety and quality of soumbala, a local food condiment sold and consumed in Burkina Faso. African Journal of Food Science, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.5897/AJFS2019.1891
Yérobessor, D., Somda, N. S., Somda, M. K., Compaoré, C. B., Mogmenga, I., Ezeogu, L. I., ... & Dicko, M. H. (2022). Assessment of probiotic and technological properties of Bacillus spp. isolated from Burkina¬be Soumbala. BMC Microbiology, 22(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-022-02642-7
Published
Data Availability Statement
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Essodolom Taale, Damipie Bomboma, Kossitse V. Akpataku, Tiatou Souho, Seyf-laye Alfa-Sika Mande, Tchabi Atti (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
